H31: Exploration and the New World

Foundation Higher AQAEdexcelOCREduqasCCEA

Why Elizabethans explored the world, Drake's circumnavigation, Raleigh and Virginia, the lost colony of Roanoke, mercantilism, and the beginnings of the British Empire.

Exam Board:

📖 Why Did Elizabethans Explore?

Key Context: The Elizabethan era was a great age of exploration. Improvements in navigation, shipbuilding, and cartography made long ocean voyages possible. English explorers were driven by a combination of economic ambition, national rivalry with Spain, religious zeal, and sheer curiosity. Their voyages laid the foundations for what would become the British Empire.

Reasons for Exploration

1. Trade and Wealth:

European demand for luxury goods from Asia (spices, silk, porcelain) was enormous
The existing trade routes through the Mediterranean were controlled by Italian merchants and the Ottoman Empire, making goods extremely expensive
Explorers hoped to find new, direct routes to Asia that would bypass the Italian and Ottoman middlemen
The potential profits were staggering - a single cargo of spices could be worth 1,000 times its purchase price
The discovery of the Americas by Columbus in 1492 opened up entirely new sources of wealth

2. Rivalry with Spain:

Spain and Portugal had established a monopoly on exploration and colonisation through the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), which divided the New World between them
England, as a Protestant nation, was excluded from the Spanish-Portuguese colonial system
Elizabeth wanted to challenge Spanish dominance and share in the wealth of the New World
English privateers like Drake deliberately targeted Spanish treasure ships and colonies
Exploration was partly an expression of national rivalry and competition

3. New Routes:

Explorers searched for the "Northwest Passage" - a sea route around or through North America to Asia
Martin Frobisher attempted to find the Northwest Passage in 1576-78, reaching what is now Baffin Island in Canada
John Davis made three voyages (1585-87) searching for the passage, reaching as far as the strait that now bears his name
Although the Northwest Passage was not found, these voyages expanded geographical knowledge and opened new fishing grounds

4. Religion and National Pride:

Many explorers saw themselves as spreading Protestant Christianity to counter Spanish Catholic missionary work
Exploration was a source of national pride and prestige
Elizabeth wanted England to be seen as a major European power

Reason	Details	Key Examples
Trade and wealth	Search for new routes to Asia; access to luxury goods and precious metals	Frobisher's search for the Northwest Passage; Drake's raids on Spanish shipping
Rivalry with Spain	Challenge Spanish-Portuguese colonial monopoly; Protestant vs Catholic competition	Drake's attacks on Spanish colonies; Raleigh's colonisation of Virginia
New routes	Search for the Northwest Passage to Asia	Frobisher (1576-78), Davis (1585-87)
Religion and national pride	Spread Protestantism; demonstrate England's power	Drake claiming New Albion for England; Raleigh naming Virginia for Elizabeth

🚢 Technological Advances Enabling Exploration

Why Exploration Was Possible in the 16th Century: Key technological advances made long ocean voyages feasible:

Caravel and galleon ships: New ship designs combined square sails (for speed before the wind) with triangular lateen sails (for manoeuvring into the wind)
Compass and astrolabe: The magnetic compass allowed sailors to determine direction; the astrolabe and later the sextant allowed them to calculate latitude from the stars
Improved maps and charts: Gerardus Mercator's map projection (1569) allowed navigators to plot straight-line courses on flat maps
Quadrant and cross-staff: Instruments for measuring the angle of the sun or stars above the horizon to determine latitude
Log and line: Used to measure a ship's speed through the water

Navigation Tools:
Compass → Direction (North, South, East, West)
Astrolabe/Quadrant → Latitude (distance from equator)
Log and line → Speed
Charts and maps → Course plotting
Limitation: No accurate way to measure longitude (east-west position) until the marine chronometer (1759)

⚓ Sir Francis Drake's Circumnavigation (1577-1580)

The Voyage

Drake set sail from Plymouth on 15 November 1577 with five ships and approximately 164 men
The official purpose was to explore the Pacific coast of the Americas; the unofficial purpose was to raid Spanish shipping and colonies
Drake sailed through the Strait of Magellan and up the Pacific coast of South America
He raided Spanish settlements and captured a Spanish treasure ship, the Nuestra Señora de la Concepción (nicknamed "Cacafuego"), which yielded approximately 26 tons of silver, 80 pounds of gold, and 13 chests of precious gems
Sailing north, Drake landed in modern-day California in June 1579, claiming the territory for England as "New Albion"
Unable to return via the Strait of Magellan (Spanish ships were waiting), Drake sailed west across the Pacific Ocean
He stopped at the Moluccas (Spice Islands) and loaded a cargo of cloves
He crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived back in Plymouth on 26 September 1580
The voyage had lasted 2 years and 10 months; only one ship (the Golden Hind) and approximately 56 men survived

Example: Drake's Return and the Profits

When Drake returned to Plymouth on 26 September 1580, the Queen's share of the booty was approximately £160,000 - enough to pay off the Crown's entire foreign debt and still have money left over. The total value of Drake's haul was estimated at £600,000 (roughly £200 million in modern terms). Elizabeth was so delighted that she visited the Golden Hind at Deptford on 4 April 1581 and knighted Drake on the ship's deck. The voyage made Drake one of the richest men in England and proved that circumnavigation was possible for an English crew.

Significance of Drake's Circumnavigation: It was only the second circumnavigation in history (after Magellan's expedition, 1519-22). It demonstrated that English sailors could match Spanish and Portuguese achievements. It brought enormous wealth to England and personally enriched the Queen. It humiliated Spain by showing that the Pacific was not a "Spanish lake." It established Drake as a national hero. It laid the foundation for England's later naval dominance and colonial ambitions.

🌲 Sir Walter Raleigh and Virginia (1584-1590)

Raleigh's Vision

Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618) was a favourite of Elizabeth I - she granted him vast estates in Ireland and a monopoly on wine licensing, making him extremely wealthy
Raleigh believed that England could establish colonies in North America that would: (1) provide new trade and wealth; (2) serve as a base for privateering against Spanish ships; (3) offer land for England's growing population
He was inspired by the idea of a "Protestant Empire" to rival Spain's Catholic empire

The Roanoke Expeditions

First Expedition (1584):

In April 1584, Raleigh sent two ships under Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe to explore the coast of North America
They landed on the Outer Banks of what is now North Carolina in July 1584
They made contact with the local Algonquian people, led by Chief Wingina, who were initially friendly
They claimed the territory for England and named it "Virginia" in honour of Elizabeth, the "Virgin Queen"
They returned to England with enthusiastic reports of fertile land and friendly natives

Second Expedition (1585-86):

Raleigh sent approximately 100 settlers under Sir Richard Grenville to establish a colony on Roanoke Island
The colony was poorly provisioned and lacked adequate supplies
The settlers antagonised the local Native Americans by demanding food and destroying villages
When Francis Drake visited in June 1586 after raiding the Caribbean, the desperate colonists begged to be taken back to England
The colony was abandoned, but not before the first tobacco and potato samples were brought to England

The "Lost Colony" (1587-1590):

In 1587, Raleigh sent a third expedition of approximately 115 settlers (including 17 women and 9 children) under John White
White's granddaughter, Virginia Dare, was born on 18 August 1587 - the first English child born in the Americas
White returned to England for supplies in late 1587 but was delayed by the Spanish Armada and the war with Spain
When he finally returned to Roanoke in August 1590, the colony was deserted - every single settler had vanished
The only clue was the word "CROATOAN" carved into a fence post - the name of a nearby island and its Native American inhabitants
No trace of the settlers was ever found. The fate of the "Lost Colony" remains one of history's great mysteries

Example: The Mystery of the Lost Colony

When John White returned to Roanoke on 18 August 1590, he found the settlement completely abandoned. The houses had been taken down, and the area was overgrown. The word "CROATOAN" was carved into a post, and the letters "CRO" were carved into a tree. White believed the settlers had moved to Croatoan Island (now Hatteras Island) to live with the friendly Croatan tribe, but storms prevented him from searching the island. Subsequent expeditions found no trace. Theories about their fate include: they were killed by hostile tribes; they were absorbed into local Native American communities; they tried to sail back to England and were lost at sea; they were killed by the Spanish. The mystery has never been definitively solved.

Why the Roanoke Colony Failed: (1) Poor planning and insufficient supplies; (2) The war with Spain diverted ships and resources; (3) Hostile relations with some Native American tribes; (4) The location was unsuitable - Roanoke Island was swampy and difficult to defend; (5) The settlers lacked the skills and experience needed for survival in a new land; (6) Raleigh's absence - he never visited Virginia himself and could not provide direct leadership.

🌍 Impact on Indigenous Peoples

Initial Contact

When English explorers first arrived in the Americas, they encountered diverse indigenous peoples who had lived there for thousands of years
Initial contacts were often friendly - Native Americans were curious about the newcomers and willing to trade food and knowledge
The Algonquian people of the Virginia coast taught the English about local crops (maize, tobacco) and survival techniques
However, misunderstandings and cultural differences quickly led to conflict

Negative Impacts

Disease: Europeans brought diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles) to which Native Americans had no immunity. Although the worst epidemics occurred after the Elizabethan period, the devastating impact of European diseases on indigenous populations was already becoming apparent
Violence: English settlers attacked Native American villages when they refused to provide food or land. The 1585 colony under Grenville burned the village of Aquascogoc after a silver cup went missing
Displacement: English claims to the land ignored Native American ownership and occupation. The concept of "terra nullius" (empty land) was used to justify taking territory
Cultural destruction: English missionaries attempted to convert Native Americans to Christianity, undermining their traditional beliefs and way of life
Enslavement: Some English explorers captured Native Americans and took them to England as curiosities or slaves. Drake captured approximately 300 Africans and Native Americans during his circumnavigation

The Impact of Colonisation: The arrival of Europeans in the Americas was catastrophic for indigenous peoples. Within a century of Columbus's first voyage in 1492, the indigenous population of the Caribbean had been virtually wiped out by disease, slavery, and violence. In North America, the impact was slower but equally devastating. The English colonists' attitude that the land was theirs by right, and that the indigenous peoples were "savages" to be converted or removed, set the pattern for centuries of displacement and conflict.

💰 Mercantilism and the Beginnings of Empire

Mercantilist Theory

Mercantilism was the dominant economic theory of the 16th-18th centuries
It held that a nation's wealth was determined by its stock of precious metals (gold and silver)
To increase its wealth, a nation should export more than it imported (a "favourable balance of trade")
Colonies were valuable because they provided raw materials (which the home country did not have to buy from rivals) and markets for manufactured goods
This theory justified colonisation, the establishment of trade monopolies, and the exploitation of colonial resources

Mercantilist Logic:
Colonies → Raw materials + Markets for exports → Favourable trade balance → Gold and silver inflow → National wealth and power
This logic drove European colonisation for over 300 years.

The Beginnings of the British Empire

Elizabethan exploration laid the foundations for the British Empire, though the empire itself did not fully develop until the 17th and 18th centuries
Key foundations: Drake's claim of "New Albion" (California) for England; Raleigh's colonisation attempt in Virginia; the establishment of trade routes to the East Indies; the development of English naval power
The first permanent English colony in America was Jamestown, Virginia, founded in 1607 - six years after Elizabeth's death
The East India Company was chartered in 1600, laying the foundation for British rule in India
By 1700, England had colonies in North America, the Caribbean, and India - the nucleus of the British Empire

Elizabeth's Legacy: Although Elizabeth herself was cautious about overseas expansion (she did not want to provoke Spain unnecessarily), her reign created the conditions for empire: a powerful navy, a culture of exploration and enterprise, and the economic resources to fund colonisation. The Elizabethan explorers - Drake, Raleigh, Frobisher, Davis - were the founders of what would become the largest empire in history.

❓ Practice Questions

Q1: Explain two reasons why Elizabethans explored the New World. (4 marks)

Q2: Describe Drake's circumnavigation of the world (1577-80). (4 marks)

Q3: Why did the Roanoke colony fail? (8 marks)

Q4: How did English exploration affect indigenous peoples in the Americas? (4 marks)

Q5: "Trade was the most important reason for Elizabethan exploration." How far do you agree? (16 marks + 4 SPaG)

Q6: Explain what happened to the "Lost Colony" of Roanoke. (4 marks)

✅ Answers

Two reasons: (1) Trade - English merchants wanted direct access to Asian luxury goods (spices, silk) without paying Italian or Ottoman middlemen, and the potential profits were enormous; (2) Rivalry with Spain - Spain and Portugal had a monopoly on New World trade through the Treaty of Tordesillas, and England wanted to challenge this by establishing its own colonies and trade routes. Other reasons include the search for the Northwest Passage and religious/national pride.
Drake sailed from Plymouth on 15 November 1577 with five ships, passed through the Strait of Magellan, raided Spanish colonies on the Pacific coast of South America, captured a Spanish treasure ship (the Cacafuego), claimed "New Albion" (California) for England in 1579, crossed the Pacific and Indian Oceans, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and returned to Plymouth on 26 September 1580. Only the Golden Hind and approximately 56 men survived. The voyage yielded approximately £600,000 in treasure.
The Roanoke colony failed because: it was poorly provisioned and lacked adequate supplies; the war with Spain diverted ships and delayed resupply missions; the settlers antagonised the local Native Americans by demanding food and burning villages; the location on Roanoke Island was swampy and unsuitable; the settlers lacked survival skills for the new environment; Raleigh never visited the colony himself and could not provide direct leadership; the 1587 "Lost Colony" was abandoned or destroyed before White could return with supplies.
English exploration affected indigenous peoples negatively: European diseases (smallpox, influenza) killed large numbers; English settlers attacked villages when Native Americans refused to provide food (e.g. Grenville burning Aquascogoc in 1585); land was taken without consent; some Native Americans were captured and taken to England; missionaries attempted to destroy traditional beliefs. However, initial contacts were sometimes friendly, and some trade and cultural exchange occurred.
A balanced answer should discuss: trade (the search for new routes to Asia, access to luxury goods, the enormous profits from Drake's raids); rivalry with Spain (challenging the Spanish-Portuguese monopoly, Protestant vs Catholic competition, national pride); the search for the Northwest Passage; religious and national motives. Argue that trade was the primary driver but that it was inseparable from rivalry with Spain - the two factors worked together to motivate exploration.
The "Lost Colony" of Roanoke was the third group of settlers sent by Raleigh in 1587, comprising approximately 115 people. John White, the governor, returned to England for supplies in late 1587 but was delayed by the Spanish Armada. When he returned in August 1590, the settlement was completely deserted. The only clue was the word "CROATOAN" carved into a fence post, possibly indicating the settlers had moved to nearby Croatoan Island. Despite searches, no trace of the settlers was ever found, and their fate remains a mystery.

🎯 Exam Tips

Always use specific dates: Drake's circumnavigation 1577-80, first Roanoke expedition 1584, Lost Colony 1587
Know the difference between Drake's raiding voyage and Raleigh's colonisation attempts
For "reasons for exploration" questions, discuss multiple factors, not just one
Remember to discuss the impact on indigenous peoples - it's increasingly important in exams
The "Lost Colony" mystery is a great example to use in questions about the challenges of colonisation
Link exploration to the wider context: rivalry with Spain, the Armada, mercantilism
For evaluation questions, explain how multiple factors worked together

📝 Exam Technique

History Exam Tips — Exploration and the New World:
1. For Exploration and the New World, include specific factual detail: dates, names, events and statistics where relevant
2. For source questions, analyse provenance (who, when, why, audience) before using the content
3. In evaluation questions, discuss multiple factors and weigh their relative significance
4. Always link back to the question focus — don't just narrate what happened with Exploration and the New World
5. Use phrases like 'the most significant factor was... because...' to show analytical judgement

⚠️ Common Errors

Watch Out!

Students often think elizabeth solved the religious problem. Wrong: Elizabeth solved the religious problem Correct: The Religious Settlement was a compromise that satisfied neither Puritans nor Catholics. Catholic plots continued throughout her reign.

Students often think the spanish armada was defeated entirely by the english. Wrong: The Spanish Armada was defeated entirely by the English Correct: While English tactics (fire ships) were important, the weather played a crucial role. Many Spanish ships were wrecked by storms.

Students often think elizabethan england was a golden age for everyone. Wrong: Elizabethan England was a golden age for everyone Correct: While the elite prospered, many lived in poverty. Enclosure displaced peasants, harvests failed, and the Poor Laws were often harsh.

✍️ Model Answer

Full-Mark Response

8 marks: Explain why Elizabethan exploration increased.

Elizabethan exploration increased primarily because of trade, rivalry with Spain, and technological advances. European demand for luxury goods from Asia — spices, silk, and porcelain — was enormous, but existing trade routes through the Mediterranean were controlled by Italian merchants and the Ottoman Empire, making goods extremely expensive. A single cargo of spices could be worth 1,000 times its purchase price. Explorers hoped to find new, direct routes to Asia, including the Northwest Passage around or through North America. Martin Frobisher searched for the passage in 1576-78 and John Davis made three voyages (1585-87).

Rivalry with Spain was a powerful motivation. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) had divided the New World between Spain and Portugal, excluding England. Elizabeth wanted to challenge Spanish dominance and share in the wealth of the Americas. Sir Francis Drake's circumnavigation (1577-80) was the most dramatic expression of this rivalry: he sailed from Plymouth on 15 November 1577, raided Spanish settlements on the Pacific coast of South America, captured the Spanish treasure ship Nuestra Señora de la Concepción (yielding approximately 26 tons of silver, 80 pounds of gold, and 13 chests of gems), claimed "New Albion" (California) for England in June 1579, and returned to Plymouth on 26 September 1580. The Queen's share was approximately £160,000 — enough to pay off the Crown's entire foreign debt. Elizabeth knighted Drake on the deck of the Golden Hind on 4 April 1581.

Sir Walter Raleigh attempted to establish a permanent English colony in North America. He sent expeditions to Roanoke Island (in what is now North Carolina) in 1584, 1585-86, and 1587, naming the territory "Virginia" after the "Virgin Queen." The 1587 "Lost Colony" of approximately 115 settlers — including Virginia Dare, the first English child born in the Americas on 18 August 1587 — vanished without trace. When John White returned in August 1590, the only clue was the word "CROATOAN" carved into a fence post. The colony failed because of poor supplies, the war with Spain delaying resupply, and hostile relations with Native Americans — Grenville burned the village of Aquascogoc in 1585 after a silver cup went missing.

The impact on indigenous peoples was devastating. European diseases (smallpox, influenza) killed large numbers, English settlers attacked villages and took land without consent, and some Native Americans were captured and taken to England. In conclusion, Elizabethan exploration increased because trade, rivalry with Spain, and new navigation technologies (the compass, astrolabe, and Mercator's map projection of 1569) made long voyages possible and profitable — but the consequences for indigenous peoples were catastrophic.

📊 AO Deep Dive

Assessment Objective Analysis

AQA History tests three AOs: AO1 (Knowledge, 35%) requires recall of specific facts, dates and details about Exploration and the New World; AO2 (Explanation, 35%) requires explaining causes, consequences and changes using detailed knowledge; AO3 (Sources and Interpretations, 30%) requires analysing provenance, content and usefulness of sources, and evaluating different historical interpretations. For grade 9, you need precise knowledge (specific dates, statistics and named individuals), sophisticated explanation showing how factors interrelate, and nuanced source analysis considering purpose, audience and context. The key difference between grade 5 and grade 9 is DETAIL and ANALYSIS — top answers support every point with specific evidence and reach substantiated conclusions.

📝 Exam Questions by Topic

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