H1: Kaiser Wilhelm and Germany
WWI strains, the February Revolution and abdication, dual power, Lenin's April Theses, the Kornilov affair and the Bolshevik seizure of power.
📋 Key Concepts
February: bread shortages + war weariness → strikes and garrison mutiny; Nicholas abdicated (2 March); Provisional Government shared dual power with the Petrograd Soviet (Order No. 1). Lenin’s April Theses: ‘Peace, Bread, Land’, ‘All power to the Soviets’, no cooperation with the PG. July Days crushed; Kornilov affair (August) — Kerensky armed the Bolsheviks. October 24–25: Red Guards seized bridges, telegraph, Winter Palace; Sovnarkom under Lenin.
🧮 Worked Examples — Exam Style
'The Kornilov affair was the main reason the Bolsheviks could seize power.' How far do you agree? (16 + 4)
YES: Kerensky armed the Red Guards, then looked weak when the threat collapsed; the Bolsheviks were armed and vindicated. NO: war collapse and land seizures made the slogans irresistible; the Soviets gave national organisation. Verdict: Kornilov handed them weapons and credibility — the slogans handed them the masses.
❓ Practice Questions
Q1: Describe two features of the February Revolution.
Q2: Give two features of dual power.
Q3: What were the April Theses?
Q4: Explain why the Provisional Government fell (two reasons, 4 marks).
Q5: 'Lenin was the main reason the Bolsheviks seized power.' How far do you agree? (16 + 4)
✅ Answers
- Abdication 2 March 1917; dual power; Order No. 1.
- April Theses Apr 1917; July Days crushed; Kornilov Aug 1917; seizure 24–25 Oct; Sovnarkom.
- PG failures: stayed in WWI, delayed land reform, postponed elections.
📌 Key Facts to Memorise
- Bloody Sunday 22 Jan 1905 (Gapon).
- October Manifesto Oct 1905; Fundamental Laws Apr 1906.
- Stolypin: wager on the strong, hangings, 1907 franchise coup; Dumas 1-2 dissolved.
🗺️ In the Exam
February vs October table: spontaneous vs planned; no leaders vs Lenin; slogans; outcome. The PG’s three fatal decisions (war, land, elections) explain the fall.
⚡ Targeted Drills
- 23 Feb women’s day protests → 27 Feb garrison mutiny → 2 Mar abdication.
- Order No. 1 = soldiers obey the Soviet.
- April Theses: peace, bread, land; all power to the Soviets.
- July Days crushed; Kornilov armed the Bolsheviks.
- 24–25 Oct: MRC seizure; Sovnarkom (Lenin, Trotsky, Stalin).
📖 Detailed Notes: Eight Months Between Revolutions
- February in detail: International Women’s Day (23 Feb) bread protests joined by Putilov strikers; 25 Feb general strike; 26 Feb troops fire; 27 Feb the Volhynia regiment mutinies — the capital falls; the Duma’s Provisional Committee + the Petrograd Soviet form (Order No. 1: soldiers obey the Soviet, not officers); Nicholas’s train halted; abdication for himself and Alexei (2 March); Michael refuses the throne.
- The PG’s fatal eight: stayed in the war (Milyukov’s note promising victory provoked the April Crisis); postponed land reform to the Constituent Assembly; delayed elections; amnesty but no real change; food rationing worsened; Lenin’s return (sealed train, April); July Days (Kerensky blamed Lenin — German-agent smear); Kornilov (August) — Kerensky panicked, asked the Bolsheviks to defend Petrograd, then branded Kornilov a counter-revolutionary; the Red Guard kept its rifles.
- October in detail: Trotsky’s MRC under the Petrograd Soviet banner; 24–25 October: bridges, telegraph, stations, Winter Palace (Aurora’s blank shot); Second Congress of Soviets ratifies; Sovnarkom: Lenin (chair), Trotsky (foreign), Stalin (nationalities).
⚠️ Common Errors
- Wrong: October was a mass rising Correct: It was a coup by Red Guards and sailors — mass support came through the Soviets
- Wrong: Kerensky had no achievements Correct: He defeated the Kornilov threat — by arming his own destroyers
🧭 Board Focus — Pearson Edexcel
Spec 1HI0. Paper 1: Thematic study with historic environment. Paper 2: Period study + British depth study. Paper 3: Modern depth study. Three papers means three distinct revision plans — Edexcel's source/interpretation marks differ per paper, so practise each paper's question stems separately.
Always check: specification details change — confirm paper structure and set texts against the current specification for your exam year.
✍️ Extended Answer Plan — "The Bolsheviks seized power in October because the Provisional Government had destroyed itself." How far do you agree? (16 + 4)
PG SELF-DESTRUCTION: war continuation (April crisis), land delay (peasant seizures), elections postponed, Kornilov panic, food collapse; by October the PG commanded nothing.
BOLSHEVIK ACTION: Lenin’s April Theses re-armed the party; Trotsky’s MRC organised the seizure; slogans answered each PG failure directly; the party grew (24,000 Feb → 240,000 Oct).
Judgement: the PG dug the grave; the Bolsheviks jumped in with a programme. Conclude: opportunity + organisation = revolution — neither alone suffices; weight your verdict toward the PG’s suicide but credit the seizure’s professionalism.
🔬 Case Study Focus — Order No. 1 and the Collapse of Authority
The Petrograd Soviet’s Order No. 1 (1 March 1917) — issued without the Provisional Government’s knowledge — ordered soldiers to obey the Soviet, elect committees, keep weapons, and salute only off-duty. It was the death warrant of army discipline: desertion rose (2m by winter), officers shot by their men, the June offensive collapsed. Exam use: Order No. 1 proves dual power was UNWORKABLE from day one — two sovereignties, one army. It also explains the Bolsheviks’ October ease: by autumn the government commanded almost nothing and the Soviets everything.
🎯 Exam Tips
- Memorise the April Theses’ three slogans.
- Dual power explains why there were TWO revolutions — always mention it.
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