PS8: Prosocial Behaviour
Why people help others: altruism, the bystander effect, diffusion of responsibility, and factors affecting prosocial behaviour including cost-reward and similarity.
Prosocial Behaviour
Why people help others: altruism, the bystander effect, diffusion of responsibility, and factors affecting prosocial behaviour including cost-reward and similarity.
Key Fact: Prosocial behaviour is any act that benefits others. Altruism is helping with no expectation of personal gain - the debate is whether true altruism exists or whether all helping is ultimately self-serving.
Key Fact: The bystander effect: people are less likely to help when others are present. Latane & Darley's (1968) smoke experiment: 75% helped when alone vs 10-38% when in a group.
Key Fact: Diffusion of responsibility: in a group, each person assumes someone else will help. This was famously linked to the murder of Kitty Genovese (1964), where 38 witnesses allegedly did nothing - though later accounts question this version.
Key Fact: The cost-reward model (Piliavin): people weigh up the costs of helping against the rewards. If costs outweigh rewards, people are less likely to help. This model suggests helping is always rational and self-interested.
Key Fact: Factors increasing prosocial behaviour: similarity to the victim, being in a good mood, having training, and being in a small group or alone.
📋 Key Vocabulary and Concepts
For Prosocial Behaviour, you must know:
- Prosocial behaviour
- Altruism
- Bystander effect
- Diffusion of responsibility
- Cost-reward model
- Pluralistic ignorance
- Kitty Genovese
- Similarity-attraction
- Social norms
- Empathy
❓ Practice Questions
Q1: Describe the bystander effect and explain why the presence of others reduces helping behaviour.
Q2: Evaluate whether true altruism exists, using psychological research.
Q3: Explain how the cost-reward model accounts for prosocial behaviour and evaluate its limitations.
✅ Answers
- The bystander effect: more bystanders = less helping. Reasons: diffusion of responsibility, pluralistic ignorance (nobody else seems concerned), and audience inhibition (fear of looking foolish). Latane & Darley's decision-making model: notice -> interpret -> take responsibility -> decide how to help -> implement help.
- True altruism debate: Cialdini's negative state relief model argues that helping reduces our own distress - so all helping is selfish. Batson's empathy-altruism hypothesis argues that empathy motivates genuine altruism. Evidence: high-empathy people help even when they can easily escape the situation.
- The cost-reward model explains helping as rational calculation. Strengths: supported by research. Limitations: ignores emotional responses (people often help instinctively), cannot explain impulsive heroism, assumes people always act rationally in emergencies.
🎯 Exam Tips
- More bystanders = LESS helping. This is the bystander effect.
- Diffusion of responsibility: 'Someone else will do it.' Pluralistic ignorance: 'Nobody else seems worried.'
- Cost-reward model: if COSTS > REWARDS, no helping. If REWARDS > COSTS, helping occurs.
📝 Exam Technique
Psychology Exam Tips:
When evaluating prosocial behaviour, use real-world examples: emergency situations, online helping behaviour, and charity giving. Consider whether lab experiments accurately reflect real emergencies.
When evaluating prosocial behaviour, use real-world examples: emergency situations, online helping behaviour, and charity giving. Consider whether lab experiments accurately reflect real emergencies.
⚠️ Common Errors
Watch Out!
Students often make mistakes here. Wrong: People don't help in emergencies because they are apathetic and don't care about others. Correct: Research shows that failing to help is usually a social-cognitive process, not apathy. Bystanders often do care but are inhibited by: pluralistic ignorance, diffusion of responsibility, and audience inhibition. Education about the bystander effect significantly increases helping rates.
✍️ Model Answer
Full-Mark Response
Evaluate the validity of the bystander effect as an explanation for failing to help in emergencies.
A grade 9 response will: describe the bystander effect with Latane & Darley's research; explain mechanisms (diffusion of responsibility, pluralistic ignorance, audience inhibition); evaluate using real-world evidence; consider alternative explanations; conclude: the bystander effect is well-established but real emergencies involve more complex processes than lab studies capture.
📊 AO Deep Dive
Assessment Objective Focus: Prosocial Behaviour
AO1 — Knowledge: Demonstrate knowledge of Prosocial Behaviour including key definitions, research studies and psychological terminology.
AO2 — Application: Apply your understanding of Prosocial Behaviour to real-world scenarios and given contexts. Use research evidence to support your points.
AO3 — Analysis & Evaluation: Evaluate psychological theories and studies related to Prosocial Behaviour, considering methodological strengths and weaknesses, and reaching a balanced conclusion.
📝 Exam Questions by Topic
🎬 Video Resources
Detailed Notes
Key Studies and Theories in Prosocial Behaviour
Prosocial Behaviour is a core topic in GCSE Psychology that requires understanding of key studies, theories and research methods. The AQA, OCR and Edexcel specifications all require you to know specific studies in detail, evaluate their methodology, and apply psychological concepts to real-life scenarios. When studying prosocial behaviour, focus on: the aims, methods, results and conclusions of key studies; the strengths and weaknesses of the research methods used; and how psychological understanding of prosocial behaviour applies to everyday life.
Key studies in this area typically use specific research methods such as experiments, observations, self-report (questionnaires and interviews), or correlational analysis. When evaluating studies, consider: reliability (can the study be replicated?); validity (does it measure what it claims to measure?); ethics (were participants protected from harm?); generalisability (can the findings be applied beyond the study sample?); and usefulness (does the research have practical applications?).
GCSE Psychology emphasises the application of psychological knowledge to real contexts. You must be able to explain how understanding of prosocial behaviour can be used to improve people’s lives, influence policy, or solve practical problems.
GCSE Example: Key Studies and Theories in Prosocial Behaviour
When writing about a study related to prosocial behaviour, use the AMRC format: Aim (what was the study trying to find out?), Method (how was it conducted — design, sample, procedure?), Results (what were the key findings?), Conclusions (what do the results mean?).
Evaluating Research in Prosocial Behaviour
Evaluation is a crucial skill in GCSE Psychology. When evaluating studies related to prosocial behaviour, use the GRAVE method: Generalisability (can the findings be applied to the wider population?), Reliability (are the results consistent if the study is repeated?), Applications (how can the findings be used in real life?), Validity (does the study measure what it claims to measure?), and Ethics (were participants treated ethically?).
Research methods commonly used in prosocial behaviour research include: laboratory experiments (high control but low ecological validity), field experiments (more realistic but less control), natural experiments (no manipulation of variables), case studies (in-depth but not generalisable), questionnaires (large samples but social desirability bias), and observations (natural behaviour but ethical concerns). Each method has strengths and limitations that must be evaluated in context.
Ethical issues in prosocial behaviour research include: informed consent (participants must agree to take part), debriefing (explaining the true purpose after the study), confidentiality (protecting participants’ identities), protection from harm (no physical or psychological damage), and right to withdraw (participants can leave at any time). The BPS Code of Conduct governs ethical standards in UK psychological research.
GCSE Example: Evaluating Research in Prosocial Behaviour
When evaluating Milgram’s obedience study, you might note: low generalisability (all male, American sample); high reliability (standardised procedure with 65% obedience rate); useful applications (understanding wartime atrocities); low ecological validity (artificial laboratory setting); and serious ethical concerns (deception, psychological distress).
Applying Prosocial Behaviour to Real Life
GCSE Psychology requires you to apply psychological understanding of prosocial behaviour to everyday situations. Consider how the theories and studies you have learned about explain real behaviour: How does prosocial behaviour affect people in schools, workplaces, families and communities? What interventions or strategies could improve outcomes based on psychological evidence?
When applying prosocial behaviour to real-life scenarios, use the following structure: identify the relevant psychological concept, explain how it applies to the scenario, support your explanation with evidence from a named study, and evaluate the strength of the application (are there limitations or alternative explanations?).
The most effective GCSE Psychology answers show a clear link between theory, evidence and application. Avoid vague statements like ‘psychology can help’ — instead, specify which psychological concept applies, which study supports it, and exactly how it could be used in the given scenario.
GCSE Example: Applying Prosocial Behaviour to Real Life
A strong application answer: ‘Understanding of prosocial behaviour could help in schools by [specific application]. This is supported by [named study] which found that [specific finding]. This means that [specific practical recommendation]. However, a limitation is [specific weakness of applying this research].’
Comparison Table
| Evaluation Criterion | What It Means | How to Assess It |
|---|---|---|
| Generalisability | Can findings apply beyond the sample? | Consider sample size, representativeness, culture |
| Reliability | Are results consistent if repeated? | Standardised procedures, replicability |
| Validity | Does it measure what it claims? | Ecological validity, construct validity |
| Ethics | Were participants protected? | Consent, debriefing, protection from harm |
| Applications | Is the research useful? | Practical implications, real-world relevance |
Additional Practice Questions
Q: Describe one study related to prosocial behaviour and evaluate its methodology using the GRAVE method.
A: A key study in prosocial behaviour investigated [aim] using [method] with [sample]. The results showed [key finding], leading to the conclusion that [interpretation]. Evaluation: Generalisability — limited by [sample issue]; Reliability — strengthened by [standardisation]; Applications — useful for [practical application]; Validity — limited by [validity concern]; Ethics — problematic because [ethical issue]. Overall, the study makes a valuable contribution but has limitations that should be considered when applying the findings.
Q: Explain how psychological understanding of prosocial behaviour could be applied to improve a real-life situation.
A: Understanding of prosocial behaviour can be applied to improve [specific situation]. Research by [named psychologist] found that [key finding], which suggests that [practical recommendation]. For example, in a school context, this understanding could lead to [specific intervention] which would benefit people by [specific improvement]. However, individual differences mean that not everyone will respond the same way, so a personalised approach may be needed.
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