G41: Energy Resources
Global distribution of energy consumption and supply, renewable and non-renewable resources, sustainable energy futures, and the economic and environmental issues of energy production.
⚡ Global Energy Consumption Patterns
Key Fact: Global energy consumption is extremely uneven. The USA (4% of world population) consumes approximately 17% of global energy. Sub-Saharan Africa (14% of world population) consumes only 4% of global energy. The average American uses 77,000 kWh per year; the average Nigerian uses just 150 kWh.
| Region | Energy Consumption per Capita (kWh/year) | Key Pattern |
|---|---|---|
| USA/Canada | 77,000-83,000 | Highest consumption; high car use, large homes, energy-intensive lifestyles |
| EU | 39,000-55,000 | High but more efficient than North America; climate varies |
| China | 26,000 | Rapidly rising; coal-heavy mix; industrial demand dominates |
| Middle East | 30,000-60,000 | High due to air conditioning, desalination, and subsidised fuel |
| India | 7,500 | Low but rising fast; 240 million people lack electricity access |
| Sub-Saharan Africa | 1,500 (average) | Lowest consumption; 770 million lack electricity; biomass dominates |
Factors Affecting Energy Consumption
- Wealth: Richer countries consume more energy for transport, heating, appliances, and industry
- Climate: Cold climates need heating; hot climates need air conditioning
- Population: More people = more energy needed, but per capita consumption varies with wealth
- Industry: Manufacturing-based economies use more energy than service-based ones
- Technology: Energy-efficient technology can decouple economic growth from energy consumption
- Government policy: Subsidies (Middle East) increase consumption; taxes (EU) reduce it
⛏️ Non-Renewable Energy Resources
Definition: Non-renewable resources exist in finite quantities and cannot be replenished within a human lifetime. They include fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) and nuclear fuels (uranium).
| Resource | Global Reserves (approx.) | % of Global Primary Energy | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Coal | 1.1 trillion tonnes (enough for ~130 years) | 27% | Abundant; cheap; reliable; can be stored | Highest CO₂ emissions; air pollution (SO₂, NOx, particulates); mining damage; declining use |
| Oil | 1.7 trillion barrels (enough for ~50 years) | 31% | Versatile; high energy density; essential for transport | CO₂ emissions; price volatility; oil spills; geopolitical tensions; reserves declining |
| Natural gas | 190 trillion m³ (enough for ~50 years) | 24% | Cleaner than coal; flexible; efficient; growing supply (shale gas) | CO₂ emissions (less than coal); methane leaks; imported by many countries; finite |
| Nuclear (uranium) | Enough for 100+ years | 4% | Low CO₂; reliable baseload; high energy density | Radioactive waste; accident risk (Chernobyl, Fukushima); expensive to build; decommissioning costs |
Global Distribution of Fossil Fuels
- Oil: Concentrated in the Middle East (Saudi Arabia, Iraq, UAE), Russia, USA, and Venezuela. OPEC controls approximately 80% of proven reserves
- Natural gas: Russia (24% of reserves), Iran (17%), Qatar (13%), and the USA (shale gas revolution). Major pipelines supply Europe from Russia
- Coal: USA (22% of reserves), Russia (15%), China (13%), and Australia. China is the largest producer and consumer
Energy Security: Countries dependent on imported fossil fuels are vulnerable to supply disruptions and price shocks. The 2022 Russia-Ukraine war caused European gas prices to increase by over 400%, demonstrating the risks of energy import dependence.
♻️ Renewable Energy Resources
Definition: Renewable resources can be replenished naturally within a human lifetime. They include solar, wind, hydroelectric, tidal, wave, geothermal, and biomass.
| Resource | % of Global Electricity (2023) | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|---|
| Wind (onshore) | 7% | Mature technology; UK has excellent wind; relatively cheap | Intermittent; visual/noise impact; requires backup capacity |
| Wind (offshore) | 3% | Stronger, more consistent wind; less visual impact | Expensive to install and maintain; subsea cable required |
| Solar (PV) | 6% | Fast-falling costs; easy to install at any scale; minimal maintenance | Intermittent; low output in UK winter; requires large areas |
| Hydroelectric | 15% | Reliable; controllable; long lifespan; can store energy (pumped storage) | Flooding land; displaces communities; disrupts rivers; limited new sites in UK |
| Tidal | <1% | Predictable; long lifespan; high energy density | Very expensive; few suitable sites; environmental impact on estuaries |
| Wave | <1% | UK has excellent wave resource; predictable | Technology still developing; vulnerable to storms; high costs |
| Geothermal | <1% | Reliable; low operating costs; small land footprint | Limited to tectonically active areas (Iceland, Kenya); high drilling costs |
| Biomass | 3% | Can use waste; theoretically carbon-neutral; controllable | Land competition with food; transport emissions; not truly carbon-neutral |
Example: Iceland's Geothermal Energy
Iceland sits on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where volcanic activity provides abundant geothermal energy. Geothermal and hydroelectric power provide 100% of Iceland's electricity and 85% of total energy (the rest is imported oil for transport and fishing). This gives Iceland: very low electricity costs, zero-carbon electricity, energy security (no imports), and the ability to attract energy-intensive industries like aluminium smelting. However, geothermal is only viable for countries with favourable geology.
🌱 Sustainable Energy Futures
Key Concept: A sustainable energy future requires transitioning from fossil fuels to low-carbon sources while ensuring reliable and affordable energy for all. This means expanding renewables, improving energy efficiency, and developing new technologies.
Key Strategies
- Decarbonisation: Shifting electricity generation from fossil fuels to renewables and nuclear. The UK's electricity is now over 40% renewable, up from under 5% in 2010
- Electrification: Replacing fossil fuel use in transport and heating with electricity (electric vehicles, heat pumps). UK plans to ban new petrol/diesel car sales by 2035
- Energy efficiency: Insulating homes, efficient appliances, LED lighting. UK homes account for 25% of CO₂ emissions; retrofitting insulation could reduce this significantly
- Energy storage: Battery technology, pumped hydro storage, and hydrogen production to store renewable energy for when the wind doesn't blow or sun doesn't shine
- Smart grids: Using digital technology to balance supply and demand in real time, managing intermittent renewable generation
- Hydrogen: "Green hydrogen" produced using renewable electricity could replace fossil fuels in industry and heavy transport
International Agreements
- Paris Agreement (2015): 196 countries agreed to limit global warming to well below 2°C, aiming for 1.5°C. Countries submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) for emissions reduction
- UK Climate Change Act (2008): Legally binding target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2050 (since updated to net zero by 2050)
- COP26 Glasgow (2021): Pledged to phase down coal; increase climate finance; and accelerate the transition to clean power
💰 Economic and Environmental Issues
Economic Issues
| Issue | Explanation | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Cost of transition | Renewables and nuclear have high upfront costs, though running costs are low | Hinkley Point C nuclear plant: £32 billion; Hornsea 2 offshore wind farm: £3 billion |
| Energy prices | Fossil fuel price volatility affects economies; transition may temporarily raise prices | 2022 energy crisis: UK energy bills rose from £1,200 to £2,500/year average |
| Job losses vs gains | Fossil fuel jobs decline but renewable sector creates new employment | UK coal mining employed 1 million in 1920s; renewables now employ over 250,000 |
| Energy poverty | Rising energy costs disproportionately affect low-income households | 6.7 million UK households in fuel poverty in 2023 |
| Infrastructure costs | New grid connections, charging networks, and hydrogen pipelines require massive investment | National Grid spending £30 billion on grid upgrades by 2030 |
Environmental Issues
| Issue | Explanation | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Climate change | Burning fossil fuels releases CO₂, causing global warming | Global temperature has risen 1.1°C since pre-industrial times |
| Air pollution | Fossil fuels release SO₂, NOx, and particulates causing respiratory diseases | London's 1952 Great Smog killed 4,000-12,000 people |
| Land use change | Mining, drilling, dams, and large solar/wind farms alter landscapes | Canadian tar sands have destroyed 480 km² of boreal forest |
| Wildlife impacts | Oil spills, dam construction, and wind turbines affect ecosystems | Deepwater Horizon spill (2010): 4.9 million barrels of oil in Gulf of Mexico |
| Nuclear waste | Radioactive waste remains dangerous for thousands of years | UK has over 300,000 m³ of radioactive waste awaiting permanent disposal |
| Resource extraction | Mining for battery materials (lithium, cobalt) has environmental and social costs | Cobalt mining in DRC involves child labour and toxic pollution |
❓ Practice Questions
Q1: Explain why global energy consumption is unevenly distributed.
Q2: Compare the advantages and disadvantages of coal and wind power as energy sources.
Q3: What is energy security? Why is it a concern for many countries?
Q4: Describe three strategies for achieving a sustainable energy future.
Q5: "Renewable energy can completely replace fossil fuels by 2050." How far do you agree?
Q6: Assess the economic and environmental impacts of the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy in the UK.
✅ Answers
- Global energy consumption is uneven because: wealth determines how much energy a country can afford (the USA uses 77,000 kWh/person/year vs Nigeria's 150 kWh); climate affects heating and cooling needs; industrial structure matters (manufacturing economies use more energy than service-based ones); population size and growth affect total demand; and government policy (subsidies increase consumption, taxes reduce it). Access to energy is also unequal - 770 million people worldwide still lack electricity.
- Coal advantages: abundant, cheap, reliable, and can be stored for later use. Coal disadvantages: highest CO₂ emissions of any fuel, causes air pollution (SO₂, particulates), mining damages landscapes, and it is being phased out in many countries. Wind advantages: renewable, zero CO₂ in operation, UK has excellent wind resources, costs have fallen 70% since 2010. Wind disadvantages: intermittent (only generates when wind blows), visual and noise impact, requires backup or storage, and offshore wind is expensive to install.
- Energy security means having reliable and affordable access to energy supplies. It is a concern because many countries depend on imported fossil fuels, making them vulnerable to supply disruptions and price shocks. The 2022 Russia-Ukraine war caused European gas prices to rise over 400%. Countries like the UK (a net energy importer since 2004) face risks when international supply chains are disrupted. Improving energy security through domestic renewables and reducing import dependence is a key policy goal.
- Strategy 1: Decarbonisation - shifting from fossil fuels to renewables and nuclear. The UK has increased renewable electricity from under 5% in 2010 to over 40% in 2023. Strategy 2: Electrification - replacing petrol/diesel vehicles with electric ones and gas heating with heat pumps. The UK will ban new petrol/diesel car sales by 2035. Strategy 3: Energy storage - developing batteries, pumped hydro, and hydrogen to store renewable energy for when generation is low, addressing the intermittency problem.
- While renewable energy can provide most of our electricity by 2050 (the UK already generates over 40% from renewables), completely replacing all fossil fuels is challenging. Some sectors (aviation, shipping, heavy industry) are hard to electrify. Intermittency requires massive storage and backup capacity. Developing countries still need to expand energy access, which may require some fossil fuels in the short term. Nuclear provides reliable low-carbon baseload but has waste concerns. A realistic scenario combines renewables, nuclear, storage, and some fossil fuels with carbon capture, rather than 100% renewables.
- Economic impacts: The transition creates jobs in renewables (250,000+ in the UK) but loses fossil fuel jobs; upfront costs are high (Hinkley Point C: £32 billion) but running costs of renewables are low; energy prices are volatile during transition (2022 crisis); fuel poverty affects 6.7 million UK households. Environmental impacts: CO₂ emissions are falling as coal is replaced; air quality is improving; but mining for battery materials (lithium, cobalt) creates new environmental problems; large wind and solar farms alter landscapes; and the transition does not yet address aviation and shipping emissions. Overall, the transition is necessary for climate targets but creates economic challenges that need careful management.
🎯 Exam Tips
- Know the key statistics: UK energy mix percentages, global consumption patterns, reserve lifetimes
- Always compare renewable vs non-renewable with both advantages and disadvantages
- Use specific examples: Iceland for geothermal, Hinkley Point C for nuclear, Hornsea for offshore wind
- For evaluation questions, consider economic, environmental, AND social impacts
- Remember energy security is a key concept - link it to current events (Russia-Ukraine war)
- Higher mark questions: argue that a MIX of energy sources is needed, not just one
- Link energy to climate change, resource management, and development topics
📝 Exam Technique
Geography Exam Tips — Energy Resources:
1. For Energy Resources questions, always name specific case studies with factual detail
2. Use geographical terminology precisely (e.g. specific processes, not vague descriptions)
3. Consider social, economic and environmental perspectives in your evaluations
4. Support your points about Energy Resources with data, statistics or named examples
5. For 'assess' or 'evaluate' questions, reach a clear judgement supported by evidence
1. For Energy Resources questions, always name specific case studies with factual detail
2. Use geographical terminology precisely (e.g. specific processes, not vague descriptions)
3. Consider social, economic and environmental perspectives in your evaluations
4. Support your points about Energy Resources with data, statistics or named examples
5. For 'assess' or 'evaluate' questions, reach a clear judgement supported by evidence
⚠️ Common Errors
Watch Out!
Students often write vague answers without specific geographical evidence. Wrong: Writing generalised statements like 'it causes problems' Correct: Using specific data and named examples, e.g. 'the 2010 Haiti earthquake killed over 200,000 people due to poor building quality'
Students often confuse causes and effects. Wrong: Mixing up what caused the event with what resulted from it Correct: Clearly separate causes (why it happened) from effects (what happened as a result)
Students often describe rather than evaluate. Wrong: Listing strategies without assessing their effectiveness Correct: Weighing up strengths and weaknesses of each approach and reaching a supported judgement
✍️ Model Answer
Full-Mark Response
6 marks: Explain the key factors affecting energy resources.
Energy Resources involves multiple interconnected factors that geographers must understand. The key concepts include the processes that create and change energy resources, the impacts on both people and environment, and the strategies used to manage associated challenges. For a comprehensive answer, specific case study evidence should be used throughout, with named examples and data to support each point. Geographical terminology should be used precisely, and the interrelationship between physical and human factors should be demonstrated. Top-level responses evaluate the relative importance of different factors and consider how the situation varies between locations.
Mark scheme: 2 marks for identifying key factors, 2 marks for explaining processes with detail, 2 marks for using specific evidence
📊 AO Deep Dive
Assessment Objective Analysis
AO1 requires knowledge of the key facts and processes related to energy resources. AO2 demands understanding of how and why these processes operate, and their implications. AO3 asks you to analyse, evaluate and make judgements — this is where grade 9 answers stand out by weighing up competing perspectives and reaching supported conclusions. AO4 may involve interpreting maps, graphs or data related to this topic. To move from grade 5 to grade 9: use precise geographical terminology, support every point with specific case study evidence, and always evaluate rather than just describe.
📝 Exam Questions by Topic
🎬 Video Resources
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