SO14: Explanations of Crime & Deviance
Sociological explanations of crime: strain theory, labelling theory, subcultural theories, Marxist, Feminist and Interactionist explanations. Why people commit crime.
Explanations of Crime & Deviance
Sociological explanations of crime: strain theory, labelling theory, subcultural theories, Marxist, Feminist and Interactionist explanations. Why people commit crime.
Key Fact: Strain theory (Merton): society promotes cultural goals (especially material success) but does not provide equal access to legitimate means to achieve them. When people cannot achieve success legitimately, they experience strain. Five adaptations: conformity (accept goals and means), innovation (accept goals, use illegitimate means - e.g. theft), ritualism (abandon goals but follow means - e.g. dead-end job), retreatism (abandon both - e.g. drug addiction), rebellion (replace both with new goals - e.g. revolution).
Key Fact: Labelling theory (Becker): no act is inherently criminal - it becomes criminal only when labelled as such by society. Primary deviance (minor, unlabelled rule-breaking) is normal. When someone is labelled as a criminal, they may accept the label and commit further deviance (secondary deviance), leading to a deviant career and master status (the label becomes their primary identity). Young's study of hippies: police labelling created a deviant subculture.
Key Fact: Subcultural theories: Cohen: status frustration - working-class boys who fail at school form delinquent subcultures that invert school values (they value what the school condemns). Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultural types - criminal (established crime networks), conflict (gang violence for status), retreatist (drug use, both legitimate and illegitimate means failed).
Key Fact: Marxist explanations: crime is a rational response to capitalist exploitation. Working-class crime is caused by poverty and alienation. White-collar crime is caused by capitalist greed. Gordon: capitalism encourages crime at all levels because it promotes self-interest and competition. Chambliss: crime is built into capitalism.
Key Fact: Feminist explanations: Heidensohn: women are controlled in the home (domestic role limits opportunity), in public (fear of male violence restricts women's movements), and at work (subordinate positions reduce opportunities for white-collar crime). Chesney-Lind: women's crime is often a response to abuse and poverty.
📋 Key Vocabulary and Concepts
For Explanations of Crime & Deviance, you must know:
- Strain theory
- Merton
- Cultural goals
- Legitimate means
- Innovation
- Ritualism
- Retreatism
- Rebellion
- Labelling theory
- Primary deviance
- Secondary deviance
- Master status
- Deviant career
- Status frustration
- Cohen
- Subculture
- Heidensohn
- Chesney-Lind
❓ Practice Questions
Q1: Describe Merton's strain theory and evaluate how well it explains crime.
Q2: Explain how labelling theory accounts for crime and deviance, using Becker's ideas.
Q3: Evaluate whether Marxist or Feminist explanations provide a better understanding of crime.
✅ Answers
- Merton: society promotes success but restricts legitimate means -> strain -> deviant adaptations. Innovation (theft for success) is the most common criminal response. Strengths: explains why crime is higher in deprived areas; explains white-collar crime (innovation at all class levels). Weaknesses: assumes everyone shares the same goals (not true - some people don't value material success); cannot explain non-utilitarian crime (vandalism); overemphasises economic motives.
- Becker: deviance is created by society's response, not the act itself. Primary deviance (minor, unlabelled) is common. Labelling someone as 'criminal' can cause secondary deviance (they accept the label and act accordingly). The label becomes a master status that overrides other identities. Young's hippies: police surveillance created group solidarity and more deviance. Strengths: explains how deviance escalates. Weaknesses: implies without labelling there would be no crime (some acts are clearly harmful); doesn't explain why people commit primary deviance.
- Marxist: crime is caused by capitalism (exploitation, inequality, greed). Explains both working-class and white-collar crime. Strengths: links crime to economic structure; explains selective enforcement. Weaknesses: not all capitalist societies have high crime; ignores gender; overemphasises class. Feminist: crime reflects patriarchal control. Heidensohn: women are controlled at home, in public and at work. Strengths: explains gender gap in crime; links crime to gender power. Weaknesses: cannot explain female crime; may understate women's agency. Both contribute but neither alone is sufficient.
🎯 Exam Tips
- Merton's 5 adaptations: Conformity, Innovation (crime), Ritualism, Retreatism, Rebellion. Strain = goals without means.
- Labelling: Primary deviance -> LABEL -> Secondary deviance -> Deviant career -> Master status. The LABEL creates the criminal.
- Marxist: crime is caused by CAPITALISM. Feminist: gender gap is caused by PATRIARCHAL CONTROL of women.
📝 Exam Technique
Sociology Exam Tips:
When explaining crime, always: name the theory and sociologist, describe the mechanism (how the theory explains WHY crime happens), give evidence, and evaluate strengths and weaknesses.
When explaining crime, always: name the theory and sociologist, describe the mechanism (how the theory explains WHY crime happens), give evidence, and evaluate strengths and weaknesses.
⚠️ Common Errors
Watch Out!
Students often make mistakes here. Wrong: People commit crime because they are naturally bad or have chosen to be criminals. Correct: Sociological research shows crime is caused by social factors, not individual moral failing. Merton: crime results from blocked opportunities (structural strain). Labelling theory: crime results from societal reaction (secondary deviance). Marxism: crime results from economic inequality and exploitation. Feminism: gender differences in crime result from patriarchal control. Individual choice matters, but it operates within social structures that constrain and shape options. Understanding social causes enables prevention, not excuse.
✍️ Model Answer
Full-Mark Response
Evaluate the usefulness of labelling theory for understanding crime and deviance.
A grade 9 response will: describe Becker's labelling theory (primary/secondary deviance, master status, deviant career); support with Young's hippie study and Cicourel's police discretion; evaluate strengths (explains how deviance escalates, challenges assumptions about criminals, shows power of societal reaction); evaluate weaknesses (doesn't explain primary deviance, implies no crime without labels, overstates the power of labels - some people resist them); conclude: labelling theory provides valuable insights into how social processes CREATE deviance, but it is incomplete - it needs to be combined with structural explanations (Merton, Marxism) that explain why some groups are more likely to be labelled and why primary deviance occurs in the first place.
📊 AO Deep Dive
Assessment Objective Focus: Explanations of Crime & Deviance
AO1 — Knowledge: Show knowledge of Explanations of Crime & Deviance using sociological terminology accurately. Identify key thinkers, concepts and theoretical perspectives.
AO2 — Application: Apply understanding of Explanations of Crime & Deviance to contemporary social contexts and given scenarios. Use evidence to illustrate sociological points.
AO3 — Analysis & Evaluation: Evaluate sociological explanations of Explanations of Crime & Deviance, comparing different theoretical perspectives and weighing the quality of evidence.
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🎬 Video Resources
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