amazon.co.ukGrammar and Accidence
The complete A-level Latin grammar reference: case uses, verb conjugations, deponents, subjunctive uses, gerunds and gerundives, indirect statement and conditionals — the OCR H443 language reference.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- Recall the case uses and their governing constructions
- Decline and conjugate across all groups, including deponents and irregulars
- Identify and translate every major subjunctive use
- Master the gerund, gerundive, indirect statement and conditionals
📋 Key Definitions and Core Concepts
Nominative: The subject's case; also the complement after esse ('rex est' = he is king) and the predicated noun.
Accusative: The direct object's case; also motion towards ('ad urbem'), duration of time ('duas horas'), extent of space ('duo milia passuum') and the indirect statement's subject.
Genitive: Possession ('rex regis'); also description ('vir magnae virtutis'), the partitive whole ('pars urbis'), value ('magni pretii'), and with verbs of remembering/accusing.
Dative: The indirect object ('regi dat'); also possession with esse ('mihi nomen est'), the agent with gerundives ('regi faciendum est'), reference ('mortalibus'), and with compound verbs ('adfuisse rei publicae') and adjectives ('fidus regi').
Ablative: Separation ('urbe discedere'), instrument ('gladio occidere'), manner ('magna celeritate'), means/cause, agent with a passive ('a/ab + person'), time ('tertia hora'), place where (with in), and the ablative absolute.
Deponent verb: Passive in form, active in meaning (hortari = to urge, sequi = to follow, proficisci = to set out); the perfect participle is passive in form AND meaning (secutus = having followed).
Indirect statement: Accusative + infinitive after verbs of saying/thinking/perceiving; the infinitive tense is relative to the main verb.
Subjunctive: The mood of the hypothesis: main uses = hortatory/jussive, purpose, result, indirect questions, cum-circumstantial, conditions (less vivid/unreal), potential (optative/deliberative).
Cases and their uses
| Case | Core use | Extended uses to know |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Subject | Complement after esse; predicated noun |
| Vocative | Direct address | Same form as nominative in most declensions (marpe: 'Marce' for Marcus) |
| Accusative | Direct object | Motion towards (ad/in + acc); duration of time; extent of space; Greek accusative (respect); indirect statement |
| Genitive | Possession | Description/quality; partitive; value; with memini/obliviscor, accuso/incuso, interest/refert |
| Dative | Indirect object | Possession with esse; agent with gerundives; reference; with compounds (adsum, praefero); purpose (auxilio = for help); adjectives (fidus, similis + dat) |
| Ablative | Separation/instrument | Manner; means; cause; agent (a/ab + person, person only); time; comparison; ablative absolute; place where (in/ab + abl) |
Time and place rules. Time HOW LONG = accusative ('duas horas' = for two hours); time AT WHICH = ablative ('tertia hora' = at the third hour); place TO WHICH = accusative (ad/in + acc); place FROM WHICH = ablative (ab/ex/de + abl); place WHERE = ablative (in + abl); names of towns and domus/rus/humus take no preposition: location = locative ('Romae' = at Rome; 'domi' = at home), motion to = accusative ('Romam'), motion from = ablative ('Roma').
Verbs: conjugations, deponents, subjunctive uses
Regular conjugations (1-4: -are, -ere, -ere, -ire): know all six tenses (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, future perfect) active + passive. Deponents (passive form, active meaning): hortari, sequi, proficisci, pati, loqui, utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor (the PUFFVE verbs take the ablative/GENITIVE objects: utor + ablative, potior + ablative or genitive). Semi-deponents (audere, fido, gaudeo — perfect forms passive in appearance, active in meaning: ausus est = he dared). Irregulars: sum/esse/fui, possum, eo, fero, volo/nolo/malo, fio.
Subjunctive uses — the complete list with their markers:
| Use | Marker | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| Hortatory/jussive | Present subjunctive, main clause | 'let us...', 'should...' (1st/3rd person) |
| Purpose | ut/ne + subj. | 'in order that...' |
| Result | ut + subj. with tam/ita/talis | 'so... that' (SEQUENCE OF TENSE applies) |
| Indirect question | question word + subj. | 'where/whether/why...' (backshift) |
| Cum-circumstantial | cum + subj. | 'when/while/after...' |
| Cum-causal/concessive | cum + indic. | 'since/although...' |
| Conditions | si/nisi + subj. (less vivid/unreal) | 'if X were to/were/had...' |
| Potential | subj. alone | 'would/might...' (possim, debeam) |
| Optative/deliberative | subj. alone | 'would that...!' / 'what am I to do?' |
| Fear clause | ne/ut + subj. after timeo/vereor | 'fear THAT... (ne)' / 'fear THAT NOT... (ut)' |
Sequence of tenses. Primary main tenses (present, future, future perfect, perfect with present force) take primary subjunctives (present = same time, perfect = before); secondary (imperfect, perfect historic, pluperfect) take secondary (imperfect = same, pluperfect = before). The result clause and indirect question both follow it — the most common unseen error is a misbackshifted indirect question.
Gerund, gerundive, conditionals and miscellany
Gerund (verbal noun, -ndi/-ndo/-ndum/-ndum): 'ars scribendi' = the art of writing; with ad + acc for purpose ('ad scribendum' = for writing); with caus (because of) + abl. Gerundive (verbal adjective, -ndus): with esse = obligation ('faciendus est' = he must do it — 'the thing must be done'); the agent in the DATIVE ('mihi scribendum est' = I must write); alone as a passive necessity ('leges servandae' = laws to be kept). The gerundive ATTRACTION: in purpose clauses, a gerund with an object may become a gerundive ('ad pacem petundam' for 'ad petendam pacem').
Conditionals — the full set: (1) Open (si + indicative): 'if X happens, Y happens' — real possibility, any time; (2) Future less vivid (si + present subj., main + present subj.): 'if X were to happen, Y would happen'; (3) Unreal present (si + imperfect subj., main + imperfect subj.): 'if X were happening, Y would be happening'; (4) Unreal past (si + pluperfect subj., main + pluperfect subj.): 'if X had happened, Y would have happened'. Mixed conditions exist (past condition, present result) — translate accordingly.
Miscellany worth marks: indirect reflexives (se = the subject of the main verb in indirect speech); attractive relative pronouns (qui = the antecedent's case: 'cuius... patrem' for 'eius pater'); dum + present for historic present ('while he is doing'); the predicative dative ('auxilio esse' = to be a help); numerals and time expressions; the comparison of adjectives (quam with comparative = 'than'; ablative of comparison without quam); satis/idoneus constructions.
💡 Worked Example
Exam-style: Translate into English: 'Cum ab urbe discessisset, miles, gladio accepto, hostes insequi coepit.' Identify the constructions.
Mark-scheme logic: Constructions: (1) 'cum ab urbe discessisset' = cum + pluperfect subjunctive = circumstantial: 'when/after he had departed from the city'; (2) 'gladio accepto' = ablative absolute: 'when he had received/taken up his sword' (instrument: 'with his sword taken up'); (3) 'hostes insequi coepit' = historic present-infinitive with coepit (inchoative): 'he began to pursue the enemy'. Translation: 'After he had left the city, the soldier, taking up his sword, began to pursue the enemy.' Marks: the cum-clause's tense (sequence), the ablative absolute's rendering as a clause, the infinitive with coepit.
❓ Practice Questions & Mark Schemes
How do you express obligation with the gerundive, and where does the AGENT go?
Answer: Gerundive + form of esse: 'faciendus est' = 'it must be done'; 'liber legendus est' = 'the book must be read'. The agent goes in the DATIVE: 'mihi liber legendus est' = 'I must read the book' (literally: 'the book must be read by-me-for'). This dative-of-agent with the gerundive is a standard exam item — never use a/ab + ablative here (that is for ordinary passives).
What is the difference between cum + subjunctive and cum + indicative?
Answer: Cum + subjunctive = CIRCUMSTANTIAL ('when/while/after X happened' — the narrative's time clause; imperfect for simultaneous, pluperfect for prior). Cum + indicative = CAUSAL ('since') or CONCESSIVE ('although') — the writer's argument, not the story's clock. The choice changes the translation entirely: 'cum hostes venirent' = 'when the enemy were coming' vs 'cum hostes veniunt' = 'since the enemy come'.
Name the five deponent verbs that take an ablative (or genitive) object.
Answer: The PUFFVE set: utor (+ ablative: 'utor gladio' = I use the sword), fruor (+ ablative: 'I enjoy'), fungor (+ ablative: 'I perform'), potior (+ ablative or genitive: 'I possess'), vescor (+ ablative: 'I feed on'). Deponents are passive in form, active in meaning; their objects follow the Greek genitive/dative pattern — memorise the set; unseen passages test them routinely.
Translate the four types of conditional with their marker tenses.
Answer: (1) Open: si + indicative, main + indicative — 'if he comes, he will see' (any real time); (2) Future less vivid: si + present subjunctive both — 'if he were to come, he would see'; (3) Unreal present: si + imperfect subjunctive both — 'if he were coming (now), he would be seeing'; (4) Unreal past: si + pluperfect subjunctive both — 'if he had come, he would have seen'. Mixed conditions (past condition + present result) exist — translate each half by its own tense.
What is the sequence of tenses, and where does it apply?
Answer: Primary main tenses (present, future, future perfect, perfect-present force) take primary subjunctives: present = SAME time, perfect = BEFORE. Secondary main tenses (imperfect, perfect historic, pluperfect) take secondary subjunctives: imperfect = SAME time, pluperfect = BEFORE. It applies to purpose clauses, result clauses, indirect questions and most subordinate subjunctives after a governing verb — the misbackshifted indirect question is the most common unseen error.