H14: Hitler's Foreign Policy
Hitler's aims, rearmament, the Saar plebiscite, Rhineland remilitarisation, Anschluss, Sudetenland, and the takeover of Czechoslovakia.
🎯 Hitler's Foreign Policy Aims
Key Fact: Hitler outlined his foreign policy aims in Mein Kampf (1925) and in a secret meeting with his generals on 5 November 1937 (the Hossbach Memorandum). His three main aims were: to destroy the Treaty of Versailles, to create a Greater Germany by uniting all German-speaking peoples, and to conquer Lebensraum (living space) in eastern Europe.
The Three Key Aims
| Aim | Detail | How It Was Achieved |
|---|---|---|
| Destroy the Treaty of Versailles | Reverse military restrictions, territorial losses, and War Guilt; end reparations | Rearmament (1935); Rhineland (1936); repudiated Versailles completely |
| Unite all German-speaking peoples | Create a Greater Germany including Austria, Sudetenland, Danzig, and the Polish Corridor | Anschluss with Austria (1938); Sudetenland (1938); Danzig (1939) |
| Conquer Lebensraum | Expand eastward into Poland, Russia, and Ukraine to provide land and resources for the German master race | Planned for the future; required war with Poland and the USSR |
Hitler's Method: The "Salami Tactics"
Hitler proceeded step by step, taking one slice at a time: each move was small enough that Britain and France would accept it rather than risk war. After each success, he prepared the next move. He used the principle of "reversibility" - if any move met strong opposition, he would retreat and try again later. This calculated approach worked brilliantly because Britain and France were committed to appeasement.
Hitler proceeded step by step, taking one slice at a time: each move was small enough that Britain and France would accept it rather than risk war. After each success, he prepared the next move. He used the principle of "reversibility" - if any move met strong opposition, he would retreat and try again later. This calculated approach worked brilliantly because Britain and France were committed to appeasement.
⚔️ Rearmament (1935)
Key Fact: In March 1935, Hitler publicly announced German rearmament, directly violating the Treaty of Versailles. He introduced conscription, expanding the army from 100,000 to 550,000 men, and revealed the existence of the Luftwaffe (air force). Britain and France protested but took no action.
Steps to Rearmament
- 1933: Hitler secretly began rearmament immediately after coming to power, keeping it hidden from the Allies
- 1934: Signing of the German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact (January 1934) undermined France's alliance system in eastern Europe
- March 1935: Hitler publicly announced conscription and the Luftwaffe. The army was to expand to 550,000 men
- June 1935: Anglo-German Naval Agreement - Britain allowed Germany to build a navy up to 35% of the British fleet, including submarines. This was a major diplomatic breakthrough that effectively accepted German rearmament
- 1936: Four Year Plan under Göring aimed to make Germany ready for war by 1940
Example: The Anglo-German Naval Agreement
The Anglo-German Naval Agreement (June 1935) was significant because Britain unilaterally agreed to German naval rearmament without consulting France or Italy. This effectively accepted the violation of Versailles. Britain justified it as a realistic response to German rearmament that was already happening, and as a way to limit German naval expansion. However, it signalled to Hitler that Britain would not firmly oppose his treaty violations.
🗳️ The Saar Plebiscite (January 1935)
Key Fact: On 13 January 1935, the people of the Saar voted in a plebiscite on their future. Under the Treaty of Versailles, the Saar had been governed by the League of Nations for 15 years. The result was 90.5% in favour of returning to Germany. Hitler celebrated this as a triumph of national self-determination.
- The Saar had been under League of Nations control since 1919, with France given control of its coal mines
- The plebiscite was required by the Treaty of Versailles after 15 years
- The result (90.5% for Germany) was an overwhelming mandate for reunion
- Even opponents of Nazism voted for reunion with Germany on national grounds
- The Saar was formally returned to Germany on 1 March 1935
- Hitler used the result as propaganda: it showed that Germans wanted to be part of the Reich
🏰 Remilitarisation of the Rhineland (March 1936)
Key Fact: On 7 March 1936, Hitler sent 22,000 German troops into the Rhineland, directly violating the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Pact. He later admitted: "The 48 hours after the march into the Rhineland were the most nerve-racking in my life. If the French had marched, we would have had to withdraw." France did not act.
Why Hitler Acted
- The Rhineland had been demilitarised by Versailles - no German troops or fortifications allowed within 50 km of the Rhine
- Hitler argued that the Franco-Soviet Pact (March 1935) threatened Germany and justified the remilitarisation as self-defence
- The timing was deliberate: France was in political crisis; Britain was distracted by the Abyssinian crisis; and the League was discredited
- Hitler offered a 25-year non-aggression pact and demilitarisation on both sides of the border as a "peace offer" - propaganda designed to make him look reasonable
Why Britain and France Did Not Act
| Britain's Reasons | France's Reasons |
|---|---|
| "Hitler was only going into his own back garden" - the Rhineland was German territory | France was in political crisis (government collapsed during the crisis) |
| Public opinion was anti-war; many sympathised with German grievances | France would not act without British support, and Britain opposed military action |
| Many believed Versailles had been too harsh on Germany | The French army was not prepared for a full-scale offensive without British support |
| Britain was focused on the Abyssinian crisis and the League's failures | French military doctrine was defensive (Maginot Line), not offensive |
Significance of the Rhineland
The Rhineland was the turning point. Hitler later admitted that if France had marched, Germany would have had to retreat - its forces were far too weak to fight. The failure to act showed Hitler that Britain and France would not resist his moves. After the Rhineland, he became more confident and more aggressive. The remilitarisation also had practical consequences: it allowed Germany to build fortifications (the Siegfried Line) that would make any future French offensive far more difficult.
🇦🇹 Anschluss with Austria (March 1938)
Key Fact: On 12 March 1938, German troops entered Austria and Hitler proclaimed the Anschluss (union) with Austria. The Treaty of Versailles had specifically forbidden Anschluss. A rigged plebiscite on 10 April 1938 produced a 99.75% "yes" vote. Austria became the German province of Ostmark.
Events
- Hitler had tried to engineer an Anschluss in 1934 but was blocked by Mussolini, who moved troops to the Austrian border
- By 1938, the relationship between Hitler and Mussolini had improved (Rome-Berlin Axis, October 1936) and Mussolini no longer opposed Anschluss
- February 1938: Hitler pressured Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg to appoint the Nazi Seyss-Inquart as Minister of the Interior
- 9 March 1938: Schuschnigg announced a plebiscite on Austrian independence
- 11 March 1938: Hitler demanded Schuschnigg's resignation; Seyss-Inquart became Chancellor and "invited" German troops to restore order
- 12 March 1938: German troops crossed the border unopposed; Hitler entered Vienna on 14 March
- 10 April 1938: A rigged plebiscite produced 99.75% approval for the Anschluss
Why Britain and France Did Not Act
Britain did not act because: it believed the Treaty of Versailles had been wrong to forbid Anschluss; many saw it as Germans uniting with Germans (self-determination); public opinion was strongly anti-war; and Britain was not prepared militarily. France did not act because: it was in political turmoil (no stable government); it would not act without Britain; and the French army was not prepared for an offensive. Mussolini's acceptance of Anschluss was crucial - without Italian opposition, there was no deterrent to Hitler.
🏔️ The Sudetenland and the Munich Agreement (September 1938)
Key Fact: At the Munich Conference on 29-30 September 1938, Britain, France, Italy and Germany agreed that Germany would annex the Sudetenland (the German-speaking area of Czechoslovakia). Czechoslovakia was not invited to the conference. Chamberlain returned to Britain claiming he had achieved "peace for our time."
Background
- Over 3 million ethnic Germans lived in the Sudetenland, the border area of Czechoslovakia
- Hitler encouraged the Sudeten German Party (led by Konrad Henlein) to demand autonomy and then union with Germany
- Czechoslovakia had a well-equipped army of 34 divisions and fortifications in the Sudetenland
- France had an alliance with Czechoslovakia and was treaty-bound to defend it
Events Leading to Munich
- April-September 1938: Henlein's demands escalated; Hitler threatened war
- 15 September 1938: Chamberlain flew to Berchtesgaden to meet Hitler; agreed to Sudeten self-determination
- 22 September 1938: Chamberlain flew to Bad Godesberg; Hitler increased his demands to immediate German occupation of the Sudetenland
- 24 September 1938: Czechoslovakia ordered mobilisation; France also began mobilisation
- 28 September 1938: Mussolini proposed a four-power conference
- 29-30 September 1938: Munich Conference: Germany, Britain, France, and Italy agreed Germany would occupy the Sudetenland by 10 October
The Munich Agreement:
Germany would annex the Sudetenland immediately. Czechoslovakia was not consulted. An international commission would determine further borders. Hitler promised this was his "last territorial demand in Europe." Chamberlain and Hitler also signed a separate declaration promising to resolve future differences through consultation. Within 6 months, Hitler had broken every promise.
Germany would annex the Sudetenland immediately. Czechoslovakia was not consulted. An international commission would determine further borders. Hitler promised this was his "last territorial demand in Europe." Chamberlain and Hitler also signed a separate declaration promising to resolve future differences through consultation. Within 6 months, Hitler had broken every promise.
🇨🇿 The Takeover of Czechoslovakia (March 1939)
Key Fact: On 15 March 1939, German troops entered Prague and took control of the remainder of Czechoslovakia. This was the first time Hitler had seized non-German territory. It proved that his aims went beyond uniting German-speaking peoples and that the Munich Agreement had been a mistake. It ended the policy of appeasement.
Events
- After Munich, Czechoslovakia was weakened and divided: Slovakia was given autonomy; Hungary and Poland seized border territories
- 14 March 1939: Under German pressure, Slovakia declared independence
- 15 March 1939: German troops entered Prague; the Czech president Hacha was summoned to Berlin and forced to accept German "protection"
- Bohemia and Moravia became a German "protectorate"; Slovakia became a puppet state
- This was the first time Hitler had occupied a non-Germanic country - it showed his real aim was conquest, not self-determination
Significance of the Czech Takeover
The seizure of Czechoslovakia was crucial because: (1) it proved Hitler could NOT be trusted - his promise at Munich that he had "no more territorial demands" was a lie; (2) it showed his aims went beyond uniting Germans to conquest of non-German territory; (3) it gave Germany the Czech army's equipment (including 469 tanks and 1,000 aircraft) and the Skoda armaments works; (4) it convinced Chamberlain that appeasement had failed; (5) it led to the guarantee of Poland (31 March 1939). After Czechoslovakia, Britain began rearming seriously and preparing for war.
📊 Hitler's Foreign Policy: Timeline Summary
| Date | Event | Versailles Violation | British/French Response |
|---|---|---|---|
| October 1933 | Germany left the League and Disarmament Conference | Rejected Versailles restrictions | No action |
| January 1935 | Saar plebiscite - 90.5% voted to return to Germany | Legal - Treaty provided for plebiscite | Accepted the result |
| March 1935 | Public rearmament; conscription introduced | Violated military restrictions | Protest only; Anglo-German Naval Agreement accepted it |
| March 1936 | Rhineland remilitarised | Violated Versailles and Locarno | No action; France would not act without Britain |
| March 1938 | Anschluss with Austria | Violated Versailles ban on Anschluss | No action; seen as self-determination |
| September 1938 | Munich Agreement - Sudetenland to Germany | Violated Czech sovereignty | Appeasement; Chamberlain claimed "peace for our time" |
| March 1939 | Takeover of Czechoslovakia | Conquest of non-German territory | Appeasement abandoned; guarantee to Poland |
❓ Practice Questions
Q1: Explain why Hitler was able to remilitarise the Rhineland in 1936. (4 marks)
Q2: How important was the policy of appeasement in allowing Hitler to achieve his foreign policy aims? (8 marks)
Q3: "The Munich Agreement was a mistake." How far do you agree? (12 marks)
Q4: Explain how Hitler achieved the Anschluss with Austria in 1938. (8 marks)
Q5: "Hitler's foreign policy was the main cause of the Second World War." How far do you agree? (16 marks)
✅ Answers
- Hitler was able to remilitarise the Rhineland because: France was in political crisis and would not act without British support; Britain believed Germany was "only going into its own back garden"; Britain was distracted by the Abyssinian crisis; the League of Nations was discredited; and Hitler offered "peace proposals" to appear reasonable. Hitler himself admitted that if France had marched, Germany would have had to withdraw.
- Appeasement was crucial in allowing Hitler's successes. At each stage - Rhineland (1936), Anschluss (1938), Sudetenland (1938) - Britain and France chose not to resist. This encouraged Hitler to make bolder demands, knowing opposition would be minimal. However, other factors were also important: the League of Nations was too weak to act; France was politically unstable; Britain was militarily unprepared; public opinion was anti-war; and the Depression made nations focus on domestic problems. Appeasement was the most immediate factor but it operated within a context of broader weakness.
- The Munich Agreement was a mistake because: it gave Hitler the Sudetenland without a fight, making him stronger; Czechoslovakia lost its defensive fortifications and was left defenceless; it proved Hitler could not be trusted - within 6 months he had seized the rest of Czechoslovakia; it encouraged Hitler to make further demands (Poland); and it undermined the credibility of Britain and France. However, at the time, some arguments favoured Munich: it avoided a war Britain was not prepared for; it gave Britain time to rearm; and many believed self-determination for Sudeten Germans was justified. With hindsight, Munich was clearly a mistake, but the alternatives were limited.
- Hitler achieved Anschluss through a combination of pressure and calculation: he built a relationship with Mussolini (Rome-Berlin Axis 1936) so Italy would not oppose it; he pressured Chancellor Schuschnigg to appoint the Nazi Seyss-Inquart; he demanded Schuschnigg's resignation when Schuschnigg called a plebiscite; Seyss-Inquart "invited" German troops in; and a rigged plebiscite provided a veneer of legitimacy. Britain and France did not act because they saw Anschluss as self-determination and were not prepared for war.
- Hitler's foreign policy was a major cause of WWII because he deliberately set out to destroy the Versailles settlement, unite all Germans, and conquer Lebensraum. Each move - Rhineland, Anschluss, Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia, Poland - escalated towards war. However, other factors contributed: the Treaty of Versailles created grievances that Hitler exploited; the League of Nations was too weak to stop aggression; the policy of appeasement encouraged Hitler by showing he could act without consequences; the failure of collective security meant there was no effective international response; and the Nazi-Soviet Pact gave Hitler the confidence to invade Poland. Hitler's foreign policy was the proximate cause but it succeeded because of the failures of others.
🎯 Exam Tips
- Know the chronological sequence: Saar (Jan 1935) → Rearmament (Mar 1935) → Rhineland (Mar 1936) → Anschluss (Mar 1938) → Sudetenland (Sep 1938) → Czechoslovakia (Mar 1939)
- Hitler's quote about the Rhineland ("the 48 hours were the most nerve-racking in my life") is excellent evidence that he would have backed down if challenged
- Always explain WHY Britain and France did not act at each stage - their inaction is as important as Hitler's action
- The Anglo-German Naval Agreement (June 1935) shows Britain accepted German rearmament
- Chamberlain's "peace for our time" quote is essential for the Munich Agreement
- The Czech takeover (March 1939) is the turning point when appeasement was abandoned
- For "why was Hitler successful" questions, combine Hitler's tactics with the failures of his opponents
📝 Exam Technique
History Exam Tips — Hitler's Foreign Policy:
1. For Hitler's Foreign Policy, include specific factual detail: dates, names, events and statistics where relevant
2. For source questions, analyse provenance (who, when, why, audience) before using the content
3. In evaluation questions, discuss multiple factors and weigh their relative significance
4. Always link back to the question focus — don't just narrate what happened with Hitler's Foreign Policy
5. Use phrases like 'the most significant factor was... because...' to show analytical judgement
1. For Hitler's Foreign Policy, include specific factual detail: dates, names, events and statistics where relevant
2. For source questions, analyse provenance (who, when, why, audience) before using the content
3. In evaluation questions, discuss multiple factors and weigh their relative significance
4. Always link back to the question focus — don't just narrate what happened with Hitler's Foreign Policy
5. Use phrases like 'the most significant factor was... because...' to show analytical judgement
⚠️ Common Errors
Watch Out!
Students often think the treaty of versailles was entirely unfair. Wrong: The Treaty of Versailles was entirely unfair Correct: While harsh, some terms were reasonable. The reparations were later reduced. Germany's treatment of Russia at Brest-Litovsk 1918 was far harsher.
Students often think the league of nations was a complete failure. Wrong: The League of Nations was a complete failure Correct: The League had significant successes in the 1920s: resolving the Aaland Islands dispute, the Greece-Bulgaria border conflict, and extensive humanitarian work.
Students often think appeasement was simply cowardice. Wrong: Appeasement was simply cowardice Correct: Appeasement had logical reasons: Britain's military was unready, the public feared another war, and the USSR was seen as a greater threat than Germany.
✍️ Model Answer
Full-Mark Response
8 marks: Explain why Hitler overturned the Treaty 1933-38.
Hitler overturned the Treaty of Versailles step by step, using "salami tactics" — each move small enough that Britain and France would accept it rather than risk war. In March 1935, he publicly announced German rearmament, introducing conscription and expanding the army from 100,000 to 550,000 men, directly violating the Treaty. Britain and France protested but took no action; the Anglo-German Naval Agreement (June 1935) effectively accepted German rearmament by allowing Germany to build a navy up to 35% of the British fleet.
On 7 March 1936, Hitler sent 22,000 troops into the Rhineland, violating both the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Pact. He later admitted: "The 48 hours after the march into the Rhineland were the most nerve-racking in my life. If the French had marched, we would have had to withdraw." France did not act — it was in political crisis and would not move without British support. Britain believed Germany was "only going into its own back garden." This was the turning point: Hitler learned that Britain and France would not resist.
The Anschluss with Austria on 12 March 1938 violated the Treaty's specific ban on German-Austrian union. Hitler pressured Chancellor Schuschnigg to resign; the Nazi Seyss-Inquart "invited" German troops in; a rigged plebiscite on 10 April 1938 produced 99.75% approval. Mussolini, who had blocked Anschluss in 1934, now accepted it under the Rome-Berlin Axis. At the Munich Conference (29-30 September 1938), Britain and France agreed that Germany would annex the Sudetenland; Chamberlain declared "peace for our time." Appeasement enabled each step: Hitler calculated correctly that Britain and France would choose concession over confrontation at every stage.
Mark scheme: 2 marks per explained step with specific dates and evidence, explanation of why Britain/France did not act for top level
📊 AO Deep Dive
Assessment Objective Analysis
AQA History tests three AOs: AO1 (Knowledge, 35%) requires recall of specific facts, dates and details about Hitler's Foreign Policy; AO2 (Explanation, 35%) requires explaining causes, consequences and changes using detailed knowledge; AO3 (Sources and Interpretations, 30%) requires analysing provenance, content and usefulness of sources, and evaluating different historical interpretations. For grade 9, you need precise knowledge (specific dates, statistics and named individuals), sophisticated explanation showing how factors interrelate, and nuanced source analysis considering purpose, audience and context. The key difference between grade 5 and grade 9 is DETAIL and ANALYSIS — top answers support every point with specific evidence and reach substantiated conclusions.
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