H16: The Road to War
The Nazi-Soviet Pact, the invasion of Poland, the declaration of war, why appeasement was abandoned, and the failure of the League of Nations.
🤝 The Nazi-Soviet Pact (23 August 1939)
Key Fact: On 23 August 1939, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact in Moscow. The public agreement promised that neither side would attack the other for 10 years. A secret protocol divided eastern Europe into spheres of influence: Germany would get western Poland, and the USSR would get eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Bessarabia. This pact shocked the world - the two ideological enemies had made a deal.
Why Did Hitler Want the Pact?
- Avoid a two-front war: Hitler's greatest fear was fighting Britain/France in the west and the USSR in the east simultaneously - exactly what had helped defeat Germany in WWI
- Invade Poland: Without the pact, the USSR might have defended Poland against Germany; with it, Hitler could attack Poland knowing the USSR would not intervene
- Undermine the British guarantee: The guarantee to Poland (31 March 1939) assumed the USSR would support Poland; the pact removed this assumption
- Stalin's neutrality: If the USSR was neutral, Britain and France were less likely to declare war
Why Did Stalin Agree to the Pact?
- Time to rearm: Stalin knew the USSR was not ready for war in 1939; the pact bought time to prepare
- Distrust of Britain and France: Stalin was deeply suspicious of the Western powers after their failure at Munich (1938), where they had negotiated without him. He suspected they wanted Hitler to attack the USSR
- Territory: The secret protocol gave the USSR control of eastern Poland, the Baltic states, and Bessarabia - creating a buffer zone against Germany
- Failed Anglo-French talks: Britain and France had sent a low-level delegation by slow boat to Moscow; Hitler sent his Foreign Minister Ribbentrop by plane. The Western powers seemed uncommitted
- Communism and capitalism: Stalin had no ideological loyalty to the capitalist democracies that had tried to destroy the Russian Revolution
| Why Hitler Wanted It | Why Stalin Wanted It |
|---|---|
| Avoid a two-front war | Buy time to rearm |
| Free hand to invade Poland | Gain territory as a buffer zone |
| Undermine British guarantee to Poland | Distrust of Britain and France after Munich |
| Reduce chances of British/French declaration of war | Anglo-French negotiations were half-hearted |
Example: The Secret Protocol
The most shocking aspect of the Nazi-Soviet Pact was the secret protocol that divided eastern Europe between Germany and the USSR. Germany would take western Poland; the USSR would take eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Bessarabia (modern Moldova). This was essentially a plan to invade and partition sovereign nations. The secret protocol was not revealed until the Nuremberg Trials in 1945; the USSR denied its existence until 1989.
🇵🇱 The Invasion of Poland (1 September 1939)
Key Fact: At 4:45 am on 1 September 1939, the German battleship Schleswig-Holstein opened fire on the Polish garrison at Westerplatte in Danzig. Over 1.5 million German troops, with 2,500 tanks and 1,900 aircraft, invaded Poland from the north, south, and west. The attack used the "Blitzkrieg" (lightning war) tactic of rapid armoured advances supported by overwhelming air power.
Hitler's Justification
- Hitler demanded the return of Danzig and the Polish Corridor to Germany - both had been taken from Germany at Versailles
- He claimed that Poles were mistreating ethnic Germans in the Corridor
- On 31 August 1939, SS men staged a fake Polish attack on the German radio station at Gleiwitz, using concentration camp prisoners dressed in Polish uniforms as "evidence"
- Hitler used this manufactured incident as his pretext for invasion
The Blitzkrieg Attack
- Five German armies invaded Poland simultaneously from three directions
- The Luftwaffe destroyed the Polish air force on the ground in the first two days
- German tanks and motorised infantry advanced rapidly, encircling Polish forces
- The Polish army, fighting on horseback in many cases, could not resist the mechanised onslaught
- By 6 September, the Polish government had fled from Warsaw
- 17 September 1939: The Soviet Red Army invaded Poland from the east, as agreed in the secret protocol
- 27 September 1939: Warsaw surrendered; Poland was divided between Germany and the USSR
Why Poland Fell Quickly:
1. Blitzkrieg tactics overwhelmed Polish defences
2. The Polish army was outdated - cavalry vs tanks
3. The Luftwaffe destroyed Polish air power immediately
4. Poland was attacked from three sides (and then four when the USSR invaded)
5. Britain and France could provide no military assistance - no troops could reach Poland
6. The Polish army had not fully mobilised when the attack came
1. Blitzkrieg tactics overwhelmed Polish defences
2. The Polish army was outdated - cavalry vs tanks
3. The Luftwaffe destroyed Polish air power immediately
4. Poland was attacked from three sides (and then four when the USSR invaded)
5. Britain and France could provide no military assistance - no troops could reach Poland
6. The Polish army had not fully mobilised when the attack came
🏴 Declaration of War (3 September 1939)
Key Fact: On 3 September 1939, Britain declared war on Germany at 11:15 am, followed by France at 5:00 pm. Chamberlain broadcast to the nation: "This country is at war with Germany." The Second World War had begun. However, the declaration came two days after the invasion - there had been delays while Britain and France made last-minute attempts to negotiate.
Timeline of Declarations
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| 1 September 1939 | Germany invaded Poland |
| 1 September 1939 | Britain and France demanded German withdrawal; no response from Hitler |
| 2 September 1939 | British Cabinet debated; Chamberlain still hoped for negotiation; Parliament forced his hand |
| 3 September 1939 | British ultimatum expired at 11:00 am; war declared at 11:15 am; France declared war at 5:00 pm |
Example: Chamberlain's Broadcast
Chamberlain's radio broadcast on 3 September 1939 was sombre and reluctant: "This morning the British Ambassador in Berlin handed the German Government a final Note stating that unless we heard from them by 11 o'clock that they were prepared at once to withdraw their troops from Poland, a state of war would exist between us. I have to tell you now that no such undertaking has been received, and that consequently this country is at war with Germany." He added quietly: "Everything that I have worked for, everything that I have hoped for, everything that I have believed in during my public life, has crashed into ruins."
🔍 Why Was Appeasement Abandoned?
Key Fact: Appeasement was abandoned because Hitler's actions after Munich proved he could not be trusted and his aims were conquest, not self-determination. The seizure of Czechoslovakia (March 1939) was the decisive moment that turned British opinion against further concessions.
The Chain of Events That Ended Appeasement
- September 1938: Munich Agreement - Appeasement at its peak; Chamberlain believed he had achieved "peace for our time"
- October 1938: Churchill called Munich "a total and unmitigated defeat" - a minority view at the time
- 9-10 November 1938: Kristallnacht - turned some British opinion against Hitler
- 15 March 1939: Hitler seized Czechoslovakia - proved he could not be trusted; non-German territory conquered
- 23 March 1939: Hitler seized Memel from Lithuania
- 31 March 1939: Chamberlain guaranteed Poland - appeasement formally ended
- April 1939: Conscription introduced in Britain for the first time in peacetime
- Summer 1939: Anglo-French-Soviet talks failed; British rearmament accelerated
- 23 August 1939: Nazi-Soviet Pact - removed Soviet deterrence against Hitler
- 1 September 1939: Germany invaded Poland
- 3 September 1939: Britain and France declared war
🌐 The Failure of the League of Nations
Key Fact: The outbreak of WWII in September 1939 was the final proof that the League of Nations had failed in its primary purpose of preventing war. The League continued to exist in Geneva until it was formally dissolved in April 1946 and replaced by the United Nations, but it had been irrelevant as a peacekeeping body since 1936.
Why the League Failed to Prevent War
| Structural Failures | Policy Failures |
|---|---|
| No army to enforce decisions | Appeasement replaced collective security as the main policy |
| USA never joined - lacked the greatest power | Britain and France prioritised self-interest over League principles |
| Unanimity rule paralysed decision-making | Manchuria (1931) - could not stop Japan |
| Tied to Versailles - seen as a "winners' club" | Abyssinia (1935) - could not stop Italy; Hoare-Laval Pact betrayed League principles |
| Slow and bureaucratic | Disarmament Conference (1932-34) failed completely |
| Could not control major powers | Rhineland (1936) - League not even consulted |
Lessons Learned - The United Nations:
The UN was created in 1945 to address the League's failures:
1. The USA joined (unlike the League)
2. The Security Council had power to act (unlike the League's unanimity rule)
3. Member states contributed armed forces for peacekeeping
4. The UN had stronger enforcement mechanisms
5. The veto power reflected realistic power politics
The UN was created in 1945 to address the League's failures:
1. The USA joined (unlike the League)
2. The Security Council had power to act (unlike the League's unanimity rule)
3. Member states contributed armed forces for peacekeeping
4. The UN had stronger enforcement mechanisms
5. The veto power reflected realistic power politics
📊 Why Did War Break Out in 1939? Summary
| Factor | Detail | Importance |
|---|---|---|
| Hitler's aggression | Deliberately set out to destroy Versailles and conquer Lebensraum; invaded Poland | Most important - he was the driving force |
| Appeasement | Encouraged Hitler by showing he could act without consequences; abandoned allies | Very important - it enabled Hitler's aggression |
| League of Nations failure | Could not stop aggression in Manchuria, Abyssinia, or the Rhineland; destroyed collective security | Important - removed the international framework for peace |
| Treaty of Versailles | Created German grievances that Hitler exploited; made revisionism seem legitimate | Important background - created the conditions |
| Nazi-Soviet Pact | Removed the Soviet deterrent; gave Hitler confidence to invade Poland | Crucial trigger - without it, Hitler might have hesitated |
| Great Depression | Created economic desperation; enabled Hitler's rise; weakened democracies | Important context - set the stage for all the above |
❓ Practice Questions
Q1: Explain why the Nazi-Soviet Pact was important. (4 marks)
Q2: How important was the Nazi-Soviet Pact in causing the outbreak of war in 1939? (8 marks)
Q3: "Appeasement was the main reason war broke out in 1939." How far do you agree? (12 marks)
Q4: Explain why Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939. (8 marks)
Q5: "The Treaty of Versailles made the Second World War inevitable." How far do you agree? (16 marks)
✅ Answers
- The Nazi-Soviet Pact was important because it allowed Hitler to invade Poland without fear of a two-front war. The pact guaranteed Soviet neutrality and included a secret protocol dividing Poland between Germany and the USSR. Without the pact, Hitler might have faced Soviet opposition; with it, he had a free hand in the west. It also undermined the British guarantee to Poland, which had assumed Soviet support.
- The Nazi-Soviet Pact was crucial as the immediate trigger for war. It gave Hitler the confidence to invade Poland by guaranteeing Soviet neutrality and removing the threat of a two-front war. Without the pact, Hitler might have delayed invasion, giving more time for Anglo-French-Soviet negotiations. However, the underlying causes of war were deeper: Hitler's aggressive foreign policy, the failure of appeasement, and the weakness of the League of Nations. The pact was the final piece in the jigsaw, but without Hitler's determination to conquer, no pact would have led to war.
- Appeasement was a major reason for the outbreak of war because it encouraged Hitler's aggression. Each concession (Rhineland 1936, Anschluss 1938, Sudetenland 1938) showed Hitler that Britain and France would not resist, making him increasingly bold. The Munich Agreement gave Hitler Czech military assets and proved he could not be trusted. However, other factors were also important: Hitler was determined on war regardless of concessions; the League of Nations had already failed; the Treaty of Versailles created grievances that made German revisionism popular; and the Nazi-Soviet Pact gave Hitler the immediate confidence to invade. Appeasement enabled Hitler but it did not create his aggressive aims - he would have pursued them anyway.
- Britain and France declared war on 3 September 1939 because Germany invaded Poland on 1 September despite the British guarantee of 31 March 1939. The guarantee promised to defend Polish independence; when Hitler attacked, Britain and France had to honour it or lose all credibility. Hitler ignored their ultimatum to withdraw. The declaration of war was the end of appeasement - Chamberlain finally recognised that Hitler could not be negotiated with and that force was the only remaining option.
- The Treaty of Versailles did NOT make war inevitable, but it created the conditions that made war possible. It generated German resentment that Hitler exploited; the "stab-in-the-back" myth undermined the Weimar Republic; reparations and territorial losses created economic hardship; and the military restrictions were seen as humiliating. However, war was not inevitable: the Dawes Plan and Locarno Pact showed that reconciliation was possible; the Weimar Republic survived for 14 years; and many Germans accepted the Treaty in practice. It was the specific combination of the Great Depression, Hitler's rise, Western weakness, and the failure of the League that made war happen. Versailles created grievances, but it was Hitler who turned those grievances into war. Without Hitler, a revised Versailles might have been achieved peacefully.
🎯 Exam Tips
- Know the exact dates: Nazi-Soviet Pact 23 August 1939; invasion of Poland 1 September 1939; declaration of war 3 September 1939
- The Nazi-Soviet Pact had a PUBLIC agreement (non-aggression) and a SECRET protocol (dividing eastern Europe)
- Always explain WHY Stalin agreed to the pact - it was not just Hitler's initiative
- The Gleiwitz incident (31 August 1939) is a good example of Nazi deception
- For "why did war break out" questions, use the six-factor framework: Hitler, appeasement, League, Versailles, Nazi-Soviet Pact, Depression
- Chamberlain's broadcast on 3 September 1939 is a powerful quote: "everything I have worked for has crashed into ruins"
- Link the failure of the League to the creation of the UN - examiners like you to show understanding of consequences
- The guarantee to Poland (31 March 1939) is the formal end of appeasement - always mention it
📝 Exam Technique
History Exam Tips — The Road to War:
1. For The Road to War, include specific factual detail: dates, names, events and statistics where relevant
2. For source questions, analyse provenance (who, when, why, audience) before using the content
3. In evaluation questions, discuss multiple factors and weigh their relative significance
4. Always link back to the question focus — don't just narrate what happened with The Road to War
5. Use phrases like 'the most significant factor was... because...' to show analytical judgement
1. For The Road to War, include specific factual detail: dates, names, events and statistics where relevant
2. For source questions, analyse provenance (who, when, why, audience) before using the content
3. In evaluation questions, discuss multiple factors and weigh their relative significance
4. Always link back to the question focus — don't just narrate what happened with The Road to War
5. Use phrases like 'the most significant factor was... because...' to show analytical judgement
⚠️ Common Errors
Watch Out!
Students often think the treaty of versailles was entirely unfair. Wrong: The Treaty of Versailles was entirely unfair Correct: While harsh, some terms were reasonable. The reparations were later reduced. Germany's treatment of Russia at Brest-Litovsk 1918 was far harsher.
Students often think the league of nations was a complete failure. Wrong: The League of Nations was a complete failure Correct: The League had significant successes in the 1920s: resolving the Aaland Islands dispute, the Greece-Bulgaria border conflict, and extensive humanitarian work.
Students often think appeasement was simply cowardice. Wrong: Appeasement was simply cowardice Correct: Appeasement had logical reasons: Britain's military was unready, the public feared another war, and the USSR was seen as a greater threat than Germany.
✍️ Model Answer
Full-Mark Response
8 marks: Explain why war broke out Sept 1939.
War broke out in September 1939 because of the Nazi-Soviet Pact, the invasion of Poland, and the end of appeasement. The Nazi-Soviet Pact, signed on 23 August 1939 by Ribbentrop and Molotov in Moscow, was the immediate trigger. The public agreement promised non-aggression for 10 years; a secret protocol divided eastern Europe, giving Germany western Poland and the USSR eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Bessarabia. For Hitler, the pact avoided his greatest fear — a two-front war against the USSR in the east and Britain/France in the west, which had helped defeat Germany in WWI. For Stalin, it bought time to rearm and gained territory as a buffer zone after Britain and France's failed Anglo-French-Soviet talks.
On 1 September 1939, 1.5 million German troops with 2,500 tanks invaded Poland using Blitzkrieg tactics. The SS staged a fake Polish attack at Gleiwitz on 31 August 1939 as a pretext. The Soviet Red Army invaded from the east on 17 September 1939 as agreed in the secret protocol. Warsaw surrendered on 27 September.
Britain and France declared war on 3 September 1939 because they had guaranteed Poland's independence on 31 March 1939. This guarantee was the formal end of appeasement, issued after Hitler seized Czechoslovakia on 15 March 1939 — proving his Munich promise of "no more territorial demands" was a lie and that his aims were conquest, not self-determination. After Prague, Chamberlain finally recognised that Hitler could not be negotiated with. When Hitler ignored the British ultimatum to withdraw from Poland, Britain declared war at 11:15 am on 3 September; Chamberlain broadcast: "Everything that I have worked for has crashed into ruins." In conclusion, the Nazi-Soviet Pact gave Hitler confidence to invade, but it was the end of appeasement after Czechoslovakia that committed Britain and France to war over Poland.
Mark scheme: 2 marks per explained factor with specific dates and named individuals, clear causal chain for top level
📊 AO Deep Dive
Assessment Objective Analysis
AQA History tests three AOs: AO1 (Knowledge, 35%) requires recall of specific facts, dates and details about The Road to War; AO2 (Explanation, 35%) requires explaining causes, consequences and changes using detailed knowledge; AO3 (Sources and Interpretations, 30%) requires analysing provenance, content and usefulness of sources, and evaluating different historical interpretations. For grade 9, you need precise knowledge (specific dates, statistics and named individuals), sophisticated explanation showing how factors interrelate, and nuanced source analysis considering purpose, audience and context. The key difference between grade 5 and grade 9 is DETAIL and ANALYSIS — top answers support every point with specific evidence and reach substantiated conclusions.
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