PE24: Information Processing
Understanding the information processing model: input, decision making, output and feedback, and how this model applies to sporting situations.
🧠 The Information Processing Model
Information Processing Model: A model that explains how the brain receives information from the environment, processes it, produces a response, and uses feedback to improve future performance. The model has four main stages: Input → Decision Making → Output → Feedback.
The Information Processing Loop:
Input (sensory information from environment) →
Decision Making (process information using memory) →
Output (motor response via muscles) →
Feedback (evaluate success and adjust) →
Back to Input for continuous improvement
Input (sensory information from environment) →
Decision Making (process information using memory) →
Output (motor response via muscles) →
Feedback (evaluate success and adjust) →
Back to Input for continuous improvement
The model works as a continuous loop. Every sporting action involves receiving information, deciding what to do, executing the action, and learning from the result through feedback.
👁️ Input
Input is the information received by the performer through their senses. This sensory data comes from the environment and tells the performer what is happening around them.
Senses Used in Sport
- Vision (sight): The most important sense for most sports - seeing the ball, opponents, teammates, space
- Hearing (sound): Coach instructions, crowd noise, teammate calls, the sound of ball on racket
- Kinaesthesia (feel): Awareness of body position and movement - feeling the weight of a shot, the angle of a joint
- Proprioception: Internal awareness of limb position without looking - knowing where your arm is during a tennis swing
Selective Attention
Selective Attention: The ability to filter out irrelevant information and focus only on the most important cues. This is crucial in sport where there is a large amount of sensory input.
- Elite performers are better at selective attention than beginners
- They can ignore crowd noise and focus on the ball or opponent's body position
- Beginners often get distracted by irrelevant cues
- Example: A cricket batsman focusing only on the bowler's hand and the ball, ignoring fielders' movements
Sporting Examples of Input
Football midfielder: Sees a teammate making a run (vision), hears a teammate calling for the ball (hearing), feels the ball at their feet (kinaesthesia). Uses selective attention to focus on the passing opportunity and ignore the crowd.
Tennis player: Watches the opponent's racket angle and ball trajectory (vision), hears the sound of ball contact which indicates spin (hearing), senses their own body position for the return shot (proprioception).
🤔 Decision Making
Decision making is the process of interpreting the input information and selecting an appropriate response. This stage uses both short-term and long-term memory.
Short-Term Memory (STM)
- Also called working memory
- Stores information temporarily (approximately 20-30 seconds)
- Limited capacity - can hold around 7 items of information at once
- Used for immediate decisions in sport
- Information either passes to long-term memory or is lost
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
- Stores information permanently (or near-permanently)
- Unlimited capacity
- Contains well-learned motor programmes and past experiences
- Experienced performers have more stored information to draw upon
- Allows faster, more automatic decision making
| Feature | Short-Term Memory | Long-Term Memory |
|---|---|---|
| Duration | 20-30 seconds | Permanent |
| Capacity | Limited (~7 items) | Unlimited |
| Function | Immediate processing | Storing learned skills |
| In sport | Current situation awareness | Recall of past experiences and motor programmes |
How Decision Making Works: The performer receives input, holds it in short-term memory, compares it with information stored in long-term memory from past experiences, and selects the most appropriate response. Experienced performers make faster decisions because their long-term memory contains more relevant experiences to draw from.
Sporting Example of Decision Making
Cricketer batting: Input - sees the bowler release the ball. STM - holds the current ball trajectory. LTM - recalls similar deliveries faced in practice and matches. Decision - selects the correct shot (e.g. pull shot for a short-pitched delivery). An experienced batsman has faced many deliveries and can recognise patterns faster, making better decisions under pressure.
⚡ Output
Output is the motor response produced as a result of the decision-making process. The brain sends signals via the nervous system to the relevant muscles to carry out the chosen action.
Motor Programmes
Motor Programme: A sequence of movements stored in long-term memory that can be reproduced without conscious thought. Motor programmes allow skilled performers to execute complex movements automatically.
- Open-loop control: Used for very fast movements where there is no time for feedback during the action (e.g. a golf swing taking less than 200ms)
- Closed-loop control: Used for slower movements where feedback can be used to adjust the action during execution (e.g. a long-distance swimmer adjusting stroke technique)
Factors Affecting Output Quality
- Strength of the motor programme - well-practised skills are more automatic
- Level of arousal - too high or too low affects coordination
- Physical fitness - fatigue reduces the quality of motor responses
- Confidence - self-doubt can disrupt even well-learned motor programmes
Sporting Examples of Output
Badminton player: After deciding to play a drop shot, the motor programme for the drop shot is initiated. The brain sends impulses to the shoulder, arm and wrist muscles to execute the fine touch required.
Footballer: Decision made to pass to a teammate. The motor programme for a side-foot pass is activated. Brain signals trigger the leg muscles to contract in the correct sequence with appropriate force and timing.
🔄 Feedback
Feedback is information about the outcome of a movement that is used to improve future performance. It completes the information processing loop.
Intrinsic Feedback
- Comes from within the performer
- Received through the senses during and after the movement
- Also called internal or inherent feedback
- Example: A gymnast feels whether a balance was held correctly through kinaesthesia
Extrinsic Feedback
- Comes from outside the performer
- Provided by coaches, teammates, video analysis or results
- Also called external or augmented feedback
- Example: A coach tells a swimmer their arm entry was too wide
Feedback Loop in Sport:
Perform skill → Receive feedback (intrinsic + extrinsic) → Compare outcome with intended goal → Adjust motor programme if needed → Store improved version in long-term memory → Perform skill again with better result
Perform skill → Receive feedback (intrinsic + extrinsic) → Compare outcome with intended goal → Adjust motor programme if needed → Store improved version in long-term memory → Perform skill again with better result
Why Feedback Matters: Without feedback, the information processing loop cannot function effectively. Feedback tells the performer whether their output matched their intention, and allows them to modify future responses. Elite performers are skilled at using both intrinsic and extrinsic feedback to refine their performance continuously.
🏃 Applying the Model to Sporting Situations
Example: Netball Player Intercepting a Pass
Input: The player sees the opposing centre about to pass (vision), hears teammates calling (hearing), and focuses attention on the passer's body language and eye line.
Decision Making: In short-term memory, the player holds the current game situation. From long-term memory, they recall patterns they have seen before in training. They decide to anticipate the pass and move to intercept.
Output: The motor programme for a quick change of direction and extension of the arm is activated. Muscles contract to drive the player towards the passing lane and reach for the ball.
Feedback: Intrinsic - the player feels whether they timed the interception correctly. Extrinsic - the coach praises the anticipation or suggests they read the pass earlier. This feedback is stored for future similar situations.
Example: Goalkeeper Saving a Penalty
Input: Watches the penalty taker's approach, body angle and foot placement. Uses selective attention to focus on the striker's standing foot and hip direction.
Decision Making: Short-term memory processes the current approach. Long-term memory recalls penalties faced against this taker and general patterns (e.g. right-footed players often go to their left). Decides which way to dive.
Output: Motor programme for diving save is executed - explosive push-off, full extension of the body, hands towards the expected ball trajectory.
Feedback: Intrinsic - whether the dive felt well-timed and technically correct. Extrinsic - whether the save was made; coach feedback on positioning. Used to refine future penalty-saving decisions.
📊 Expert vs Beginner Information Processing
| Stage | Beginner | Expert |
|---|---|---|
| Input | Poor selective attention; distracted by irrelevant cues | Excellent selective attention; focuses on key cues only |
| Decision Making | Slow; limited LTM; processes consciously | Fast; extensive LTM; processes automatically |
| Output | Inconsistent; motor programmes weak | Consistent; motor programmes well-established |
| Feedback | Relies heavily on extrinsic feedback | Uses intrinsic feedback effectively; self-corrects |
❓ Practice Questions
Q1: Describe the four stages of the information processing model in the correct order.
Q2: What is selective attention and why is it important for a games player?
Q3: Explain the role of long-term memory in the decision-making process.
Q4: Using a named sporting example, explain how a performer moves through all four stages of the information processing model.
Q5: Explain the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic feedback, giving a sporting example of each.
Q6: Why does an experienced performer make decisions faster than a beginner? Refer to the information processing model in your answer.
✅ Answers
- The four stages are: Input (receiving information from the environment through the senses), Decision Making (processing the input using short-term and long-term memory to select a response), Output (executing the motor response via the muscular system), and Feedback (receiving information about the outcome to improve future performance).
- Selective attention is the ability to filter out irrelevant information and focus only on the most important cues. It is vital for a games player because there is a large amount of sensory input during a match (crowd, multiple players, ball, coach). Without selective attention, the player would be overwhelmed and unable to focus on the key information needed to make good decisions, such as the position of opponents and the movement of the ball.
- Long-term memory stores past experiences, learned motor programmes, and tactical knowledge. During decision making, the performer compares current input (held in short-term memory) with information in long-term memory to select the most appropriate response. A performer with more relevant experiences stored in long-term memory can recognise patterns faster and make better, quicker decisions.
- A tennis player returning serve: Input - sees the server's ball toss, racket position and body angle. Decision Making - short-term memory processes the current serve trajectory; long-term memory recalls similar serves faced in practice and the appropriate return shot. Output - motor programme for the selected return shot is activated, sending nerve impulses to the arm and leg muscles. Feedback - intrinsic feedback from the feel of the shot; extrinsic feedback from whether the ball landed in court and the coach's comments.
- Intrinsic feedback comes from within the performer through their own senses, e.g. a golfer feeling that their swing was smooth and well-timed through kinaesthesia. Extrinsic feedback comes from outside the performer, e.g. a coach telling a swimmer that their hand entry was too wide, or video analysis showing a cricketer their batting technique needs adjustment.
- An experienced performer has more information stored in long-term memory from years of practice and competition. This means they can recognise patterns and situations more quickly, matching current input to stored experiences faster. Their motor programmes are more established, so output is more automatic and requires less conscious processing. They also use intrinsic feedback more effectively to self-correct, making the whole information processing loop faster and more efficient.
🎯 Exam Tips
- Always state the four stages in order: Input → Decision Making → Output → Feedback
- Use the terms "selective attention" and "motor programme" correctly
- When applying the model, go through each stage with a specific sporting example
- Know the difference between short-term and long-term memory and their roles
- Remember that the model is a continuous loop - feedback feeds back into input
- Compare beginners and experts to show depth of understanding
⚠️ Common Errors
Watch Out!
Students often confuse the senses in input with decision making. Wrong: "Input is when you decide what to do with the ball." Correct: "Input is receiving sensory information from the environment, such as seeing the ball's trajectory. Decision making is the separate stage where you process that information and choose a response."
Students often forget to mention both types of memory in decision making. Wrong: "Decision making uses memory to decide what to do." Correct: "Decision making uses short-term memory to hold current information and long-term memory to compare it with past experiences and stored motor programmes."
📝 Exam Technique
PE Exam Tips — Information Processing:
1. For Information Processing questions, use subject-specific terminology precisely
2. Support every point with specific evidence or examples
3. Show balanced analysis — consider different perspectives before reaching a conclusion
4. Link your understanding of Information Processing to real-world contexts where possible
5. For longer answers, plan your response to address all parts of the question
1. For Information Processing questions, use subject-specific terminology precisely
2. Support every point with specific evidence or examples
3. Show balanced analysis — consider different perspectives before reaching a conclusion
4. Link your understanding of Information Processing to real-world contexts where possible
5. For longer answers, plan your response to address all parts of the question
⚠️ Common Errors
Watch Out!
Students often think aggression is always bad in sport. Wrong: Aggression is always bad in sport Correct: Direct aggression (within rules, e.g. a hard but fair tackle) can be channelled positively. It is only hostile aggression (intent to harm outside rules) that is always negative.
Students often think extroverts are always better at sport than introverts. Wrong: Extroverts are always better at sport than introverts Correct: Introverts may excel in individual, precise sports (archery, golf, marathon running). Extroverts tend to prefer team and contact sports. Personality is a preference, not a determinant.
Students often think more arousal always means better performance. Wrong: More arousal always means better performance Correct: The inverted-U theory shows that performance improves with arousal only up to an optimal point. Beyond that, performance declines. Fine/closed skills need lower arousal; gross/open skills need higher.
✍️ Model Answer
Full-Mark Response
6 marks: Explain how information processing affects sporting performance.
Information Processing has significant effects on sporting performance. [Key concept 1]: explain the mechanism with specific detail. [Key concept 2]: how this applies in a named sporting example. [Key concept 3]: the relationship between this topic and overall performance. A grade 9 answer uses precise anatomical/physiological terminology, specific sporting examples, and evaluates the relative importance of different factors.
Mark scheme: 2 marks per explained point with specific evidence, evaluation for top marks
📊 AO Deep Dive
Assessment Objective Analysis
GCSE PE tests four AOs: AO1 (Knowledge, 30%) — recall facts about Information Processing including definitions, classifications and specific examples; AO2 (Application, 30%) — apply knowledge to sporting contexts and training scenarios; AO3 (Analysis and Evaluation, 25%) — analyse data (graphs, tables), evaluate training methods or strategies, and justify recommendations; AO4 (Practical, 15%) — demonstrate relevant skills. For grade 9, use precise terminology, support every point with named sporting examples, and evaluate rather than just describe. The difference between grade 5 and grade 9 is the quality of application and depth of evaluation.
📝 Exam Questions by Topic
🎬 Video Resources
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