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Christianity: Death and the Afterlife, Developments and Dialogues
Year 1 / ASYear 2 / A-LevelAQA, OCR, WJEC/Eduqas, CCEA
Death and the afterlife (judgement, heaven, hell, purgatory, resurrection), Bonhoeffer, liberation theology, religious pluralism (Hick), science and secularisation - revision for AQA 7062 Paper 2 and OCR H573/03.
🎯 Learning Objectives
Explain Christian teaching on death, judgement, heaven, hell, purgatory, resurrection and the intermediate state (AO1)
Evaluate resurrection of the body vs immortality of the soul, using 1 Corinthians 15, Aquinas and Hick (AO2)
Explain Bonhoeffer's theology: costly grace, solidarity, religionless Christianity - and its critiques (AO1/AO2)
Explain liberation theology: Gutierrez, orthopraxis, base ecclesial communities - and its critiques (AO1/AO2)
Explain exclusivism, inclusivism and pluralism (Hick's copernican revolution, Rahner's anonymous Christians) and interfaith dialogue (AO1/AO2)
Explain Christianity's dialogue with science (Darwin, Polkinghorne, process thought) and secularisation (Wilson, Bonhoeffer) (AO1/AO2)
Write an evaluative essay with a sustained argument and justified verdict (AO2/AO3)
📋 Key Definitions and Core Concepts
particular judgement: The individual judgement at death - immediately after death each soul is judged (Catholic tradition), determining its destiny.
final judgement: The last judgement at the end of time, when Christ returns (parousia) and all are judged - Matthew 25:31-46, the sheep and the goats.
purgatory: Catholic doctrine: a state of purification for those who die in God's friendship but imperfectly purified; souls are cleansed before heaven (2 Maccabees 12, prayers for the dead).
resurrection of the body: Christian doctrine that the dead will be raised bodily at the last day (1 Corinthians 15); the body is transformed - a 'spiritual body' - not abandoned.
immortality of the soul: The Platonic doctrine that the soul naturally survives death; adopted by much Christian tradition but distinct from resurrection.
election: Calvin's doctrine: God has predestined some to salvation (the elect) and others to damnation; unconditional election is not based on merit.
costly grace: Bonhoeffer: grace that costs the disciple something - discipleship, sacrifice, solidarity with the suffering - contrasted with 'cheap grace': grace without discipleship.
orthopraxis: Right action (as opposed to orthodoxy - right belief); liberation theology's claim that Christian truth is verified in action for justice with the poor.
base ecclesial communities: Liberation theology: small local Christian communities reading scripture in the light of their oppression and acting for justice.
anonymous Christians: Rahner's inclusivist term: non-Christians who respond to God's grace in their own tradition are anonymous Christians - saved through Christ without knowing him.
pluralism (religious): The view that many religions are valid paths to the same divine reality; Hick's copernican revolution - God, not Christianity, is the centre of religious plurality.
secularisation: The decline of religious belief, practice and institutional influence in modern societies (Wilson: 'the decline of religious practice, institutions and belief').
Death and the afterlife: judgement, heaven, hell and purgatory
Spec: AQA 7062 Paper 2 section 3.3.2 (Self, death and the afterlife); OCR H573/03 (death and the afterlife).
Judgement:particular judgement - at death each soul is judged (Catholic tradition; Hebrews 9:27 'it is appointed unto men once to die, but after this the judgement'); final judgement - at the parousia (Christ's return), all are judged: Matthew 25:31-46, the sheep and the goats - judged by works of mercy ('I was hungry and you gave me food'); election - Calvin: God has predestined the elect to salvation regardless of merit; Arminian response - free response to grace matters.
Heaven and hell: heaven - union with God (beatific vision); hell - separation from God; traditional imagery (fire, darkness) vs modern reinterpretations (hell as self-chosen estrangement - C.S. Lewis' locked door from the inside). Purgatory: Catholic doctrine - purification for the imperfectly purified (2 Maccabees 12; prayers for the dead); Protestant reformers rejected it as unbiblical.
Resurrection vs immortality of the soul: resurrection of the body is the Christian doctrine (1 Corinthians 15 - 'sown a natural body, raised a spiritual body'; the body is transformed, not abandoned); immortality of the soul is Platonic (the soul naturally survives) and adopted into much Christian tradition via Augustine. Aquinas: the soul survives death as the form of the body (hylomorphism: the soul is not a separate substance but the body's form); the resurrected body reunites with the soul - resurrection completes the person. Hick: the replica theory - God re-creates a replica of the person at the moment of death elsewhere (possibly in a new space); identity is secured by God's act, not a naturally surviving soul; Hick's eschatological verification supports this. Critiques: the replica may not be the same person (identity problem); hylomorphism makes natural survival hard to explain; Peter Geach - resurrection requires the same body, not a replica.
Intermediate state in full: between death and resurrection the soul awaits the final judgement (Catholic: particular judgement, purgatory; Protestant: the intermediate state without purgatory); 2 Corinthians 5:8 - 'away from the body and at home with the Lord' - the standard proof text for immediate presence with Christ; Luke 23:43 - the penitent thief: 'today you will be with me in paradise' - immediate vs deferred readings. Limbo: the contested Catholic doctrine for the unbaptised - formally set aside in recent theology (the International Theological Commission, 2007). Judgement by works in full: Matthew 25 (sheep and goats) grounds the Catholic-Protestant debate on faith and works (James 2 - 'faith without works is dead'); the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Luke 16) illustrates judgement and the fixed chasm after death.
Developments: Bonhoeffer and liberation theology
Bonhoeffer (1906-1945; The Cost of Discipleship, Ethics; Letters and Papers from Prison): executed by the Nazis for involvement in the resistance. Costly grace: 'cheap grace is the preaching of forgiveness without requiring repentance... costly grace is the gospel which must be sought again and again... it is costly because it costs a man his life, and it is grace because it gives a man his life' - discipleship demands sacrifice and solidarity. Solidarity: 'Christ exists as community' - the church exists for others; Bonhoeffer's own solidarity with the oppressed (Jews under Nazism) models this. Religionless Christianity: from prison letters - in a world 'come of age', Christianity must speak without the trappings of religion; the church must exist for others in the secular world. Critiques: the prison letters are fragmentary - the exact meaning of 'religionless Christianity' is disputed; costly grace may be legalistic; his involvement in the assassination plot raises moral questions (deception, violence).
Liberation theology: Gustavo Gutierrez (A Theology of Liberation, 1971) - theology must begin from the experience of the poor; orthopraxis over orthodoxy - Christian truth is verified in action for justice; base ecclesial communities - small local communities reading scripture in the light of oppression; preferential option for the poor (Vatican II, Medellin); the Exodus and the prophets as the biblical pattern - God sides with the oppressed. Critiques: the Vatican (1984 instruction) warned against Marxist analysis; the gospel is not a political programme; base communities can bypass the hierarchy. Defence: orthopraxis does not require Marxism - it requires action for justice; the preferential option is a Catholic principle, not a party line.
Spec: AQA 7062 Paper 2 (Christianity: good conduct, key moral principles, religion and secularisation); OCR H573/03 (Christian moral action - Bonhoeffer; liberation theology). Feminist theology: Mary Daly (The Church and the Second Sex; Beyond God the Father) - 'if God is male, then male is God'; Rosemary Ruether - 'the negative theology of women's religious experience'; critiques of patriarchal language and structures; process thought: Whitehead - God evolves with the world (dipolar theism); Polkinghorne - science and theology as complementary.
Feminist theology in full: Mary Daly (Beyond God the Father, 1973) - 'if God is male, then male is God'; the critique of exclusively male God-language and church structures; Rosemary Ruether (Sexism and God-Talk, 1983) - 'the negative theology of women's religious experience'; the recovery of Sophia wisdom traditions; critique: Daly's departure from theism (radical feminism) is contested; Ruether's reformist line retains Christian doctrine while critiquing patriarchy. Process thought in full: Whitehead (Process and Reality, 1929) - dipolar theism: God is primordial (unchanging potential) and consequent (evolving with the world); Hartshorne develops this; God acts by persuasion, not coercion - compatible with evolution and with Bonhoeffer's church-for-others; critique: a God who evolves cannot be the omnipotent God of classical theism - the standard AO2 point.
Dialogues: religious pluralism, science and secularisation
Religious pluralism: three positions. Exclusivism: only one religion is true (Karl Barth - revelation in Christ alone; 'only in Christ'); inclusivism: one religion is fullest but others participate in its truth (Rahner - anonymous Christians: non-Christians saved through Christ without knowing him; Vatican II - elements of truth in other religions); pluralism: many religions are valid paths to the same reality (Hick - the copernican revolution in theology: God, not Christianity, is the centre; all the great faiths are culturally conditioned responses to the same divine Reality; the Real an sich is beyond all concepts). Critiques of pluralism: it flattens real doctrinal differences (Trinity vs no Trinity cannot both be true of the same God); the 'Real an sich' is unverifiable; exclusivists reply that pluralism is itself a first-order religious claim, not neutral. Interfaith dialogue: learning, witness and common action (Nostra Aetate); dialogue presupposes neither relativism nor exclusivism.
Science: Darwin (On the Origin of Species, 1859) - natural selection challenges literal readings of Genesis and design arguments; responses: non-literal readings (Augustine's allegorical Genesis commentary), theistic evolution (Polkinghorne - science describes how, theology why); process thought (Whitehead) - God acts through persuasion, not coercion, compatible with evolution; Dawkins - science makes God redundant (The God Delusion). Judgement: the science dialogue is not a single conflict - it is staged as Darwin vs literalism, Polkinghorne vs Dawkins, with Augustine as the hermeneutical hinge.
Secularisation: Bryan Wilson - 'the decline of religious practice, institutions and belief' in modern societies; causes: rationalisation, differentiation, pluralism; responses: Bonhoeffer's religionless Christianity - the church must exist for others without religious trappings; the secularisation thesis is contested - global Pentecostalism and religious resurgence show decline is not universal; Berger recanted his early secularisation claims ('the world today... is as furiously religious as it ever was'). Judgement for A*: secularisation in the West is real but not total; Bonhoeffer's response is prescient but his 'religionless Christianity' is fragmentary and disputed.
Interfaith dialogue in full: Nostra Aetate (1965) - the Catholic church's declaration on non-Christian religions: elements of truth and holiness in other faiths; dialogue takes three forms: learning (study of other faiths), witness (sharing one's own) and common action (justice, peace) - dialogue presupposes neither relativism nor exclusivism, and Rahner's inclusivism is its standard theological grounding. Science in full: the Galileo affair and Darwin's challenge are historical anchors; modern figures: Polkinghorne (Physics and Theology - science and theology as complementary descriptions of one reality), Peacocke (theistic evolution), Dawkins (The God Delusion, 2006 - science makes God redundant); process thought (Whitehead) as a metaphysical reconciliation. Secularisation in full: Weber's rationalisation ('disenchantment of the world'), Wilson's differentiation; UK data - declining affiliation and attendance since the 1960s census patterns; Bruce (God is Dead, 2002) - the strongest secularisation thesis; Berger's recantation (The Desecularization of the World, 1999) as the standard counterpoint.
Exam technique: synthesis and pitfalls
Spec coverage: AQA 7062 Paper 2 section 3.3.2 (Self, death and the afterlife: judgement, heaven, hell, purgatory, resurrection, election); 3.3.7 (Religion and secularisation); 3.3.8 (Religion and religious pluralism); plus good conduct and key moral principles. OCR H573/03 (Developments in Christian thought): death and the afterlife, Christian moral action (Bonhoeffer), liberation theology, religious pluralism, gender, secularisation, knowledge of God.
Exam structure: AQA Paper 2: each question = 25 marks - 10-mark AO1 'Explain...' then 15-mark AO2 'Critically discuss...'; two questions answered from Section 3.3 (Study of religion). OCR H573/03: extended 'Critically discuss' essays. WJEC/Eduqas Component 3 (Christianity option) and CCEA A2 systematic study of Christianity cover similar content.
Essay structure: (1) set out the doctrine/development with scripture or scholar; (2) strongest supporting point; (3) strongest critique; (4) comparative or dialoguing position (Hick, Polkinghorne, Berger); (5) weigh and verdict.
Pitfalls: confusing resurrection with immortality of the soul (bodily transformation vs natural survival); presenting purgatory as biblical for all traditions (it is Catholic; Protestants reject it); treating Bonhoeffer's prison letters as a complete systematic theology (they are fragmentary); confusing inclusivism (Rahner: anonymous Christians) with pluralism (Hick: many valid paths); asserting secularisation as universal (Berger's recantation); quoting Hick's 'Real an sich' without explaining that it is beyond concepts; missing election (Calvin) in afterlife answers.
Examiner tips: quote 1 Corinthians 15 ('sown a natural body, raised a spiritual body') and Matthew 25 (sheep and goats); name Bonhoeffer's three contributions (costly grace, solidarity, religionless Christianity) as separate points; distinguish exclusivism, inclusivism and pluralism explicitly with Rahner and Hick; use Polkinghorne and Berger as the dialogue counterpoints to Dawkins and Wilson; end with a justified verdict - e.g. Hick's pluralism is theologically radical but unverifiable, so inclusivism better preserves Christian doctrine while accepting other faiths.
💡 Worked Example
Exam-style: 'The resurrection of the body is the most convincing Christian teaching on life after death.' Critically discuss this claim. [AQA 7062 15-mark AO2 essay / OCR H573 extended essay]
Mark-scheme logic: AO1 required: resurrection of the body (1 Corinthians 15 - 'sown a natural body, raised a spiritual body'); immortality of the soul (Platonic; Augustine); Aquinas' hylomorphism (soul as form of the body, resurrection completes the person); Hick's replica theory and eschatological verification; judgement (particular and final, Matthew 25), purgatory and election where relevant. AO2 required: (1) resurrection strengths - bodily doctrine fits 1 Corinthians 15 and the creed; the person is restored whole; (2) resurrection weaknesses - identity problem for the replica (Geach); 'spiritual body' is unclear; (3) immortality of the soul strengths - natural survival fits near-death intuitions; but it is Platonic rather than biblical; (4) Hick - replica theory secures identity by God's act, but the replica may not be the same person; (5) weigh - e.g. resurrection better preserves Christian doctrine, but the identity problem is decisive against Hick's version; conclude with a justified verdict.
❓ Practice Questions & Mark Schemes
Explain Christian teaching on death and the afterlife. [10 marks AO1]
Answer: AO1 answer: particular judgement - at death each soul is judged (Hebrews 9:27); final judgement - at the parousia all are judged (Matthew 25:31-46, the sheep and the goats - judged by works of mercy); heaven - union with God (beatific vision); hell - separation from God (C.S. Lewis: self-chosen estrangement, the locked door from the inside); purgatory - Catholic purification for the imperfectly purified (2 Maccabees 12), rejected by Protestants; election - Calvin: God predestines the elect regardless of merit; resurrection of the body (1 Corinthians 15 - 'sown a natural body, raised a spiritual body') vs immortality of the soul (Platonic). Marks awarded for: judgement (particular and final), heaven/hell, purgatory with its denominational status, election, and the resurrection/soul distinction.
'The resurrection of the body is the most convincing Christian teaching on life after death.' Critically discuss. [15 marks AO2]
Answer: AO1 anchor: 1 Corinthians 15; Aquinas' hylomorphism; Hick's replica theory. AO2 required: (1) resurrection strengths - bodily doctrine fits 1 Corinthians 15 and the creed; the person is restored whole; Aquinas: the soul as form of the body means resurrection completes the person; (2) weaknesses - Hick's replica may not be the same person (identity problem); 'spiritual body' is unclear; Geach - resurrection requires the same body, not a replica; (3) immortality of the soul - natural survival fits near-death intuitions, but it is Platonic rather than biblical and hylomorphism makes it hard to explain; (4) Hick - eschatological verification and replica theory secure identity by God's act; (5) weigh - e.g. resurrection better preserves Christian doctrine, but the identity problem is decisive against Hick's version rather than the doctrine itself; conclude with a justified verdict.
Explain Bonhoeffer's theology of costly grace and religionless Christianity. [10 marks AO1]
Answer: AO1 answer: Bonhoeffer (The Cost of Discipleship, 1937; Letters and Papers from Prison) - executed by the Nazis for resistance involvement. Costly grace: 'cheap grace is the preaching of forgiveness without requiring repentance... costly grace is costly because it costs a man his life, and it is grace because it gives a man his life' - discipleship demands sacrifice. Solidarity: 'Christ exists as community' - the church exists for others. Religionless Christianity: from the prison letters - in a world 'come of age', Christianity must speak without the trappings of religion; the church must exist for others in the secular world. Critiques: the letters are fragmentary, so the meaning of 'religionless Christianity' is disputed; costly grace may be legalistic. Marks awarded for: costly grace with the quote, solidarity, religionless Christianity, and the fragmentary-letters caveat.
'Liberation theology is Christianity's response to poverty.' Critically assess. [15 marks AO2]
Answer: AO1 anchor: Gutierrez (A Theology of Liberation, 1971) - orthopraxis over orthodoxy; base ecclesial communities; preferential option for the poor (Vatican II, Medellin); Exodus and prophets as the biblical pattern. AO2 required: (1) support - theology must begin from the poor's experience; orthopraxis does not require Marxism - it requires action for justice; the preferential option is a Catholic principle; base communities empower the oppressed; (2) Vatican critique (1984) - warned against Marxist analysis; the gospel is not a political programme; base communities can bypass hierarchy; (3) Bonhoeffer's solidarity - the church exists for others, supporting liberation theology's direction; Daly and Ruether - parallel liberation from patriarchal structures; (4) judgement - liberation theology is a valid development of Christian social teaching, but whether it is 'the' response (rather than one among several) and whether its analysis survives without Marxism are open questions; conclude with a justified verdict.
Explain Hick's religious pluralism and Rahner's inclusivism. [10 marks AO1]
Answer: AO1 answer: Rahner (inclusivism) - anonymous Christians: non-Christians who respond to God's grace in their own tradition are saved through Christ without knowing him; one religion (Christianity) is fullest but others participate in its truth; Vatican II: elements of truth in other religions. Hick (pluralism) - the copernican revolution in theology: God, not Christianity, is the centre of religious plurality; all the great faiths are culturally conditioned responses to the same divine Reality; the Real an sich is beyond all concepts. Contrast: Rahner retains Christ as the means of salvation; Hick relativises all traditions including Christianity. Marks awarded for: both positions accurately set out, 'anonymous Christians' and 'copernican revolution' quoted, and the contrast between them.
'Secularisation shows Christianity has no future in the West.' Critically discuss. [15 marks AO2]
Answer: AO1 anchor: Wilson - 'the decline of religious practice, institutions and belief'; causes: rationalisation, differentiation, pluralism. AO2 required: (1) support - Western church attendance and affiliation have declined sharply; secularisation is real in Britain and Europe; (2) Bonhoeffer's response - religionless Christianity: in a world 'come of age' the church must exist for others without religious trappings - decline of religion need not mean decline of faith; (3) Berger's recantation - 'the world today... is as furiously religious as it ever was'; global Pentecostalism and religious resurgence show decline is not universal; (4) Hick's copernican revolution - decline of institutional religion may accompany persistence of spirituality; (5) weigh - secularisation in the West is real but not total, and 'no future' overstates: conclude with a justified verdict, e.g. institutional decline is real but the future of faith is contested - Bonhoeffer's and Berger's responses both challenge the claim.
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